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CHINA.

;t

TIIK PRKi

CHINA,

oa,

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SYMBOLS, PHILOSOPHY, ANTIQUITIES,

CUSTOMS, SUPERSTITIONS, LAWS, GOVERNMENT,

EDUCATION, AND LITERATURE

OP

THE CHINESE.

DERIVED FROM ORIGINAL SOURCES, AND ACCOMPANIED
WITH DRAWINGS FROM NATIVE WORKS.

BY SAMUEL KIDD,

rmorcsso* or rat chikksx language and literati?**, university colmok,

LOMDOK.

r

' LONDON:
PRINTED FOR TAYLOR & WALTON.

SOOKSXLLBftS AND FUBLIRHKRH TO UNIVERSITY COLLKC.K,

UPPER GOWER STREET.
1841.

CA

12. >v

V

I ;

■'■ * ^<VL<. ■

i

Printed by J. L. Cox and Sons, 75. Great Queen Street,
Lincoln't-Inn Fields.

.\

A

PREFACE.

The author feels that, in contributing to augment
the number of works on China, some explanation
may be required of the principle by which he has
been guided. He is aware several valuable treatises
exist in the English language on topics purely
Chinese ; but having attentively considered the
object and modes of illustration pursued by their
respective writers, the nomenclature of whose sub-
jects may be in some respects similar to his, he
frankly avows that the method he prescribed to
himself some time ago has not been anticipated by
any previous publication.

The specific object of the volume is to excite an
interest on behalf of the Chinese, in those who are
seeking comparatively unexplored fields of research,
where they may acquire extended views of man, in
his moral and intellectual state, in his social con-
nections, and in relation to the Supreme Power
from which he believe* himself to have emanated.

A

VI PREFACE.

The peculiar circumstances which surround a Chinese
from his birth, and continue to form his character in
advancing to maturity, point him out as a suitable
specimen of one of the wide extremes to which
members of the same great family may diverge,
through the modifying influence of educational ha-
bits, irrespective of Christian principle.

A European, introduced to one of the more pow-
erful nations of the East, and sufficiently interested
in it to investigate the mental and moral character-
istics by which it is distinguished, must first apply
himself to the language, not only as the best means
of opening original sources of knowledge, but as the
Burest method of conducting his literary researches
among the people to correct conclusions ; because,
~while it is by studying modes of speech in Europe
that distinct traits of national character are fiilly
developed, so a knowledge of the language of an
oriental nation— especially that of China — is still
more essential to the development of its peculiar
characteristics.

The writer having for several years been conver-
sant with the Chinese, among whom, through the
medium of their best authors and native expositors,
he learned their language, national literature, and
customs, though no longer animated with the hope
of usefulness that first directed his studies, still
preserves those impressions of interest which tended

PREFACE. VU

so powerfully to subserve his higher aims. These
strongly urge him to recommend for more extended
study what many foreign Chinese scholars, with
himself, would designate the power and elegance of
the symbolic system. For, however noble any object,
philanthropic or scientific, may be in itself, its at-
tainment is greatly facilitated, when the means by
wliich it is to be secured are agreeable to the tastes
and sympathies of its promoters.

Being favoured with access to Chinese works
belonging to the Morrison Library in University
College, the writer has endeavoured to render his
previous acquisitions, combined with appropriate
illustrations from native authors, subservient to the
elucidation of the several subjects discussed in this
volume ; with what success others must determine.

The work was designed as well for the general
reader as the student of Chinese ; and, therefore,
both in the philological and other parts, it has been
the author's care to avoid mere technical phrase-
ology, and to convey Chinese thoughts to the English
mind through a plain, intelligible medium. The
symbolic system especially favours such design, since
it appeals to the mind, through expressive pictorial
images, and altogether dispenses with the cumbrous
illustrations of alphabetic etymology, where nume-
rous sounds, frequently ungrateful to the ear, without
conveying ideas to the mind, are adduced in proof of

a 2

Vlll PREFACE.

the genealogy of a word, which, whatever may be its
hidden qualities, has certainly no external attraction
comparable to that of a pictorial symbol.

The author commits this work to the candid con-
sideration of his enlightened countrymen, as a means
of exciting attention to the important topics which
it embraces, for the two-fold purpose of extending
Chinese literature in England, and promoting English
literature, both sacred and secular, in China.

For the portrait of the Emperor of China at the
beginning of the volume, the author is indebted to
the kindness of Mrs. Morrison, who favoured him
with the loan of an original Chinese drawing, from
which it is taken.

Camdkn Town,
June 23rd, 1841.

CONTENTS.

SECTION I.
oaten* and oenius of thb chinbsb language— objections to its

IDEOGRAPHIC NATURE OBVIATED BT DBDUCTIONS FROM FACTS —
SRN8B, NOT SOUND, THB 8PBCIFIC OBJBCT OP CHINBSB WRITING-—
SIM ILARITY BBTWBBN CBBTAIN EGYPTIAN HIBROOLTPHS AND BOMB
CHINBtB SYMBOLS. P«f# 1 — 98.

SECTION II.

A SEBTCB OF THB ANCIBNT HI8T0BT OP CHINA— CHARACTER OP HBB
PIBST SOVEREIGNS — RECORDS OF TMB DBLUOB— LAWS, ANTIQUITIES,
AND CUSTOMS OF HBB EARLIEST INHABITANTS. P«f # 99—134.

SECTION III.

THB THBBB SBCTS— BBNTIMBNT6 ON THB PIBST CAUSE— NATURB OF THBIB
DIFPSBBNT SYSTEMS — PRACTICAL INFLUENCE. Pf 135—189.

SECTION IV.

THB MOBAL PHILOSOPHY OP THB CHINBSB — THBIB ST8TBM OP GOVERN -
MBNT, COMPRISING THE MBAN8 BT WHICH ITS AUTHORITY IS UP-
HBLD AND CARRIED INTO EXECUTION. P*g* 190—209.

SECTION V.

POLITICAL STATE OF THB CHINBSB — ANCIBNT DYNASTIES — TARTAR CON-
QUEST—IMPERIAL PAMILT — PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS— 8UPBBMB TBI-
B UN A1A— DIFFERENT DBOBBES OP NOBILITY. P*f* 310—262.

CONTENTS.

SECTION VI.

SUPERNATURAL ANIMALS — ANTIQUITIES — SACRED AND SOCIAL CUSTOMS
—CIVIL AND POLITICAL INSIGNIA — INTERCOURSE WITH DISEMBODIED
SPIRITS — SUPERSTITIOUS PREJUDICES — PERIODICAL FEAST8— DIVI-
NATION — marriage. Page 263 — 334.

SECTION VII.

EDUCATION — LITERATURE — MEDICINE — BOTANY — NATURAL HISTORY —

concluding remarks. Page 335 — 403.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES,

WHICH ARE ALL COPIED FROM CHINB8B WORKS.

I. Ancient imperial carriage, copied from a drawing in the
Shoo-king opposite page 114

r II. No. 1. An ancient altar, ascended by steps. 2. A skin
garment anciently worn by priests when offering sacri-
fices opposite page 242

, III. Instruments of war. No. 1. Bow. 2. Arrow. 3. Helmet.

4. Spear. 5. Lance. 6. Shield. 7. Banner. 8. Battle-
axe opposite page 246

. IV. No. 1. Military drum. 2. Imperial standard. 3. Banner
waved to direct military movements in battle. 4. Shield.

5. Sonorous stones opposite page 248

• V. No. 1. Sceptre of the earliest Chinese dynasties. 2.
Sceptre of the Tang dynasty. 3. Sceptre said to have
been employed at the Deluge opposite page 268

. VI. No. 1. Ancient duck vessel used at feasts as an emblem of
temperance. 2. Ancient bell used to convoke assem-
blies of the people opposite page 270

VII. No. 1 . Ancient vase. 2. Ancient basket. 3. Sacrificial cup

made from the head of the victim offered in sacri-
fice opposite page 270

VIII. No. 1. A lamp made to resemble the lotus flower. 2.

Musical Instrument opposite page 276

XU DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATB8.

-- IX. No. 1. Defective ring, a token by which official connection
with the imperial government is dissolved. 2. Ancient
sash, made of connected rings opposite page 278

^ X. No. 1. National seal of the Han dynasty. 2. National
seal of the Tsin dynasty opposite page 280

-XI. Ancient medal opposite page 282

XII. No. 1. Ancient imperial linen crown. 2. Imperial cap of
the Han dynasty opposite page 284

XIII. No. 1. Imperial state cap adorned with 288 gems. 2.

Ancient imperial apron opposite page 284

XIV. Nos. 1, 2. Chinese castanets. 3. Ancient cup, made of

the horn of the unicorn — sent by his majesty to officers
of government present at public feasts, as a token of
his displeasure to be followed by immediate punish-
ment opposite page 272

ERRATA.

At page 137, line 13,/or " Osis," read " Iris."

— 268, last line of note, for "J See putes Nos. 1, 2," reed " % See
Plate V. Fig. 1, 2." And at same page and line, /or " || See Plate No. 3,"
read " || See Plate V. Fig. 3."

At page 269, second line of note from bottom, for " * See Plate No. 4,"
read " * See Plate II. Kg. 1."

At page 271, last line of note, inert " See Plate VI. Fig. 1."

CHINA.

SECTION I.

OEIOn* AND GENIUS OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE — OBJECTIONS TO ITS
IDEOGRAPHIC NATUEB OBVIATES BY DEDUCTIONS FBOM FACTS — SENSE,
NOT SOUND, THE SPECIFIC OBJECT OF CHINESE WmiTINO — SIMILARITY
BETWEEN CERTAIN BOYFTIAN HIEBOOLYFH8 AND SOME CHINESE
SYMBOLS.

Although various treatises on the history and character
of the Chinese language have been published by scho-
lars of considerable reputation, still there are points,
peculiarly interesting both to the philosopher and the
philologist, which require to be elucidated by an accurate
investigation of facts and sound analogical reasoning.
Having stated my views of the elementary and gram-
matical properties of this ancient tongue, in a lecture,*
introductory to the Chinese course at University College,
it will not be necessary to discuss them in this essay,
especially as my present object embraces matter some-
what different in its nature, and capable of more extended

• See " Lecture on the Nature and Structure of the Chinese Language,"
by the Author.

B

2 ORIGINAL LANGUAGE OF MAN.

application. The method I propose to adopt proceeds
on the assumption that the study of symbolical language
has hitherto been little cultivated, simply because its
characteristic distinctions have not been well understood,
and that the frequent failure of attempts to combine its
elements into a rational and consistent system has re-
sulted from ignorance of its modes and uses in practical
detail. In alphabetical languages, the written medium,
composed of single letters, consists of the same ele-
mentary principles as the oral; but it is otherwise in
symbolical tongues, whose characters are purely ideo-
graphic, and therefore do not necessarily constitute a
system of phonetic signs.

In tracing a language so ancient as the Chinese to its
source, the interesting inquiries naturally arise — what
relation may it be supposed to have borne to any of the
primitive modes of speech ? — how long did the primeval
tongue exist? — has it, in any modified form, survived
the introduction of other languages into the world? —
were all previous sounds lost in the confusion of tongues
at Babel, and entirely new ones created ; or, were various
and contrary ideas grafted, by supernatural interposition,
on words already familiar? From the description of
man's first condition, in sacred history, speech, as a
medium of communicating thought, must have preceded
writing; but whether the mode of representing ideas
through the medium of the eye was suggested by Divine
inspiration, or it derived its origin from human resources)
cannot now be ascertained. It is probable that intelli-
gible sounds were used, in the infancy of the world, not
only as names of .living creatures and designations of
material substances, but also to denote some inherent

IDEAS, NOT WORDS, ITS DIRECT OBJECT. 3

quality, perceptible to the outward senses, or some pecu-
liar circumstance, by which each genus was distinguished ;
like many words now current in the Hebrew, Chinese,
and other Oriental languages. It may not be practicable
to determine whether similar properties in different ob-
jects originated words nearly alike, except perhaps in
their terminating or initial sound; yet it must be ad-
mitted that ideas not only generated phonetic signs in
all languages, but also all the different sounds which
subsist in the same language, especially where, like the
Chinese, it is unique, and unencumbered with foreign
importations. Man, as a thinking being, endowed with
the power of speech, for the purpose of enabling him to
express his thoughts, would not ordinarily invent new
words, except to convey additional ideas ; nor would he
long defer the attempt to supply some medium of inter-
course as a substitute for the oral, after the human family
had begun to separate into distinct groups on distant
parts of the earth. What method, then, would seem to
be the most obvious and rational ? On any system, diffi-
culties must have occurred to those who first sought to
communicate abstract notions ; since, so far as we know,
words descriptive of material substances and sensible
objects were the only practicable medium ; though it
is not beyond probability that the "inspiration of the
Almighty" might supernaturally endue man with wisdom
to express sensations and reflections suggested by natural
scenes and daily occurrences.

The first abstract conception uttered by a human being,
so far as we are informed, was the sensation of fear,
excited through the aural organ, and confessed by Adam
to his Creator, in the following manner : " I heard thy

u2

4 SYMBOLS THE FIRST WRITTEN MEDIUM.

voice, and I was afraid." The emotion was strange ; and,
therefore, required some audible medium of development,
inapplicable to existing objects or past circumstances:
still, from his ability instantly to reveal that hitherto un-
known impression, our first parent could most probably
give instinctive utterance to any class of feelings or senti-
ments of which he might become the subject, though only
possessed of a vocabulary strictly limited to his immediate
necessities. But whether ideas ever arose in his mind to
which he could not affix a definite sign, phonetic or
graphic, is a question which cannot be fully solved, so
long as it shall remain undetermined whether sensible
images are necessary to self-communion, or man ever
thinks in perfect abstraction from the words with which
he is accustomed to clothe his ideas in speaking. Much
matter for interesting debate might be supplied by raising
points on the inquiry — what is sound? Does it neces-
sarily resolve itself into distinct elements, known to us
as letters, or were these the result of special revelation
from God ?

As each species of the inferior creation was naturally
endued with power to utter a peculiar sound, which has
continued to be characteristic of its nature to the present
time; so, had it not been for Divine interposition, one
human language would probably have prevailed through-
out every age and territory of the world. Nor, when it
was attempted to impart ideas by signs, would it appear
natural to invent a system so refined and complicated as
that of an alphabet, which should indicate to the eye,
by a variety of new combinations, ideas and names already
familiar to the ear. It is much more probable that rude
pictures of the objects to be represented would constitute

SOURCES OF THE GRAPHIC SYSTEM. 5

the first effort to interchange thought without the medium
of sound. Symbols of a certain order, under the modify-
ing influence of physical necessities and growing mental
strength, might easily be made to combine with their
literal signification a figurative sense, expressive of the
emotions and affections of the heart. Nor does it appear
how man could describe many of his own propensities,
except by reference to the lower animals, whose actions
and habits, attentively observed, would be found strik-
ingly to correspond to certain characteristics of human
nature, which might be graphically depicted by the figure
of the species in which that one property was predomi-
nant

An illustration of my meaning occurs in the use of the
serpent as an emblem of subtilty. It is designated, by
the sacred writer, " the most subtile of all the beasts
of the field," thereby indicating both the original differ-
ence of instinct in beasts, and the peculiar quality for
which the serpent tribe was distinguished. Now the
figure of this animal would be a natural mode of con-
veying the idea of subtilty to the mind through the eye,
and infinitely more simple than the invention of phonetic
signs to represent separate elements of the sound by
which it was known to the ear. Moreover, if the neces-
sity of written forms was first discovered, either to note
the divisions of time, to instruct youth, to transmit memo-
rable circumstances to posterity, or to communicate with the
absent, the symbolic mode would seem far preferable to
the alphabetic ; but if they were invented to recall names,
and not to pourtray things, which is very improbable,
then some elementary signs must have gradually obtained
timilar to the letters of our alphabet. The power of Ian-

guage necessarily augments, in proportion to the progress
of the mind in useful knowledge and industrious habits.
The culture of the soil, as our first parents' chief employ-
ment, no doubt suggested many terms applicable to other
affairs and duties. Abel was a keeper of sheep, probably
for the purposes of sacrifice, as well as for the ordinary
objects of life, and Cain was a tiller of the ground.
Division of labour, thus early introduced, would tend to
enrich language. Clothing, habitations, implements of
husbandry, domestic and sacred utensils, would not only
require names, but suggest terms significant of other
things to which they were intimately allied. u The Lord
God," it is said, "made Adam and Eve coats of skins;"
who, having been thus supernatumlly instructed in things
immediately necessary for use, would obtain many new
words from the labour necessary to modify and arrange
different materials in promotion of their daily comfort;
while the moral circumstances under which additional
wants originated would contribute to increase the number
of vocables, and perpetuate their primary import; as the
word for garment, derived from the moral necessity of
covering the person, would always be associated with the
idea of concealment. But the copiousness of symbols
thus invented would greatly depend on the progress made
iu manual employments, their number, nature, and variety,
with the degree of skill acquired iu art or science of
any kind ; while the operations of the mind would be best
described by reference to physical labour, at once common
and important. Man being sui generis in a world of which
he had the ostensible dominion, could not fully depict
hia own character and pursuits, except by alternate
Inference (von the body to the mind, and from the mind

THE GRAPHIC SYSTEM. 7

to the body; and, therefore, his resources of personal
illustration must be derived principally from himself,
the habits of no other creature being adequate to supply
similes of equal power with the facts of his individual
history and experience.

The more ancient languages may reasonably be ex-
pected to proceed on a scheme distinguished by close
conformity to the existing systems of nature and art.
Human beings, designed to be both imitative and pro-
gressive, must have owed their improvement, in the early
ages of the world, chiefly to their gradual acquaintance
with the properties of the visible creation. Isolated tribes,
in later times, whose mental energies have been at all
developed, make their social and political systems coincide
with surrounding natural objects ; whence we infer that
the physical position of any part of the human family
will, in a great degree, decide, not only their external con-
dition, but their mental character and acquirements also,
especially where they are left entirely to their own culture.

Perhaps it may be assumed, without fear of contra-
diction, that, from certain characteristics in their lan-
guage, polity, ethics, hrfbits, manners, superstitions, and
prejudices, the Chinese, though a very ancient race, are
not the aborigines of the country they now inhabit, but
are descended from a nation highly civilized, subtile,
intelligent, and superstitious, whose general properties
have been perpetuated from time immemorial by virtue of
the imitative principle in human nature having been
restricted in its operations to the example of superiors in
age and station. Emigrants would naturally retain the
customs of their father-land with feelings of peculiar
affection, and as naturally enjoin them on their descend-

EGYPT AND CHINA COMPARED.

ants, by whom they would be adopted and transmitted to
posterity through all succeeding generations.

Supposing, for the sake of argument, that Egypt was
the parent country of the Chinese, who, at an unknown
aera, migrated to the territory they now occupy, should we
not expect to find, in the speech and usages of the colo-
nists, even at this distant epoch, some affinities with the
language and customs of their ancestors, and, in the
national characteristics of the two countries, some points
of mutual resemblance? If, then, the principle on which
I am proceeding be granted, many of the present pecu-
liarities of the Chinese are readily accounted for. It not
only furnishes a clue to the origin of various social habits
and daily practices, but explains the rise of the great
dogma of veneration for parents and ancestors, which,
with them, has pre-eminence over every other consider-
ation, moral, political, or religious. Their patriarchal
system will then appear not to have owed its origin to the
ingenuity of the sage whose name it bears, but to the tra-
ditionary testimony of the ancients whose general senti-
ments it embodies. This supposition is, to a certain
extent, corroborated by their own historians, who repre-
sent Confucius, not as having invented a new system of
philosophy, but only as having illustrated and expanded
the doctrines of chieftains and kings of antiquity; which,
indeed, according to his own testimony, he collected from
existing records of a purer age in the infancy of the
world.

It is far more probable that China and Egypt, com-
paring them to two mighty rivers, should have issued from
one fountain, than that they should be parallel streams
flowing from independent sources, since there is strong

SIMILARITY OF THE CHINESE TO THE HEBREWS. 9

mutual resemblance between the manners and usages of
the two countries ; and, even where dissimilarity exists, it
is only in cases naturally referrible to desuetude, from
which the most revered practices are not exempt. It
should be remembered, notwithstanding the ridicule cast
upon them by western nations, that the Chinese were
separated from the rest of the human family at a very
early period of its history, and that they at this day
observe many maxims and precepts prevalent among the
ancient Hebrews, whom they especially resemble in good
sense, and their sententious mode of expressing ideas.
Now, on perceiving points of similitude in civil customs
and sacred ceremonies, moral apothegms and legislative
enactments, between the Chinese and the Hebrews, and
knowing that the latter were a considerable time in Egypt,
is it unreasonable to attribute this similitude to the access
both nations once had to one common source ?

But we must be careful not to argue in a circle. I
regard it as an axiom of inspired wisdom in the arrange-
ments of Hebrew polity, not to change customs already
familiar, except from absolute necessity, on moral or
religious grounds; so that whatever the Israelites had
learned under the rule of Pharaoh would be perpetuated
by daily practice in the wilderness and in the land of
Canaan, if their reverence for the Supreme Jehovah and
their mutual regard were not thereby likely to be dimi-
nished, as it was, in too many instances, by doing, from
previous habit, things contrary to the Divine will. If,
then, we find peculiar coincidences and corresponding
practices in the detail of ordinary life between the Chinese
and the Hebrews, which preceded, by many centuries, the
dispersion of the Jews, and the introduction of Buddhism

10

ELEMENTS l)F

and Mahomet! an ism into China, shall we not have pre-
sumptive evidence that the Chinese and the Egyptians
were anciently in close connection, if they were not origi-
nally one people? But this subject shall be more fully
discussed in its proper place.

The object of this chapter is to develope and illustrate
the ideographic nature of the Chinese language, and to
compare it, as far as practicable, with the Egyptian. The
elementary principles of the written system consist of two
hundred and fourteen characters, usually, by Europeans,
denominated radicals, but by natives _^- ^tJ tsze-poo.
Now, poo signifies, in botanical language, the class or
genus of trees, and is also applied to a tribe of men,
to the five original elements of nature, and to the six
supreme tribunals at Peking ; hence the use of the word
to denote the elements of the language includes the idea
that " heads of classes " is their appropriate designation.
Thus, when you ask a Chinese to what root any character
belongs, it is proper to say I4 "fiS) 4^ f± '(p) ^[J
chay ko tsze tsae ho poo — " this character is placed under
what class ? " or J^l ]§[J "^ J^ ^ )%£ tsze poo show she
shin mo — " head-class, character what V* The following
syllabus comprehends the general ideas indicated by these
heads of clusses, which 1 have arranged in the order of
subjects, but which, for facility of reference, are placed
in Chinese dictionaries according to the number of strokes
required in their formation, beginning at one, and SM&Bfl
wttli ttMM tat H : the order, therefore, is mine.

1. Heavenly Object! — sun, moon, time, measured by the
r woluli ona of the heavenly bodies, and the constellation
.'Illietin-.il Beef, which is worshipped in Gfaio*

THE CHINESE SYMBOLS. 1 1

2. Atmospheric Phenomena — wind, rain, frost, vapour,
sound.

3. Man, as a generic term — one's self, the human
frame— its members and properties — head, heart, face,
eyes, ears, nose, mouth, tongue, teeth, hands, feet, skin,
hair, flesh, blood, bones, nails, sinews. Relations of life —
father, son, daughter. State incident to humanity — sick-
ness, old age, death. Spirit — demon — or the shade of a
human being. External condition — a servant, a scholar.

4. Animals, wild and domestic — as the tiger, dragon,
tortoise, cow, sheep, dog, horse, hog, stag, squirrel, rabbit,
rat, moose, frog or toad, an insect, a reptile : birds with
short tails, and birds in the act of flying : fishes — the alii*
gator; the same character includes the dragon and the
lacerta species ; the sea-tortoise, and oyster.

5. The five original Elements, which, according to Chi-
nese philosophers, are — fire, water, metal, wood, earth;
also, as related to earth — salt-land, hill, valley, mound,
field ; and, as related to wood — bamboo, a splinter, a
branch, a bud.

6. Productions of the Earth; grain — the generic term
— pulse, millet, wheat, hemp, paddy, rice, barley, herbs.

7. Qualities perceptible to the senses, comprehending
colour, taste, and smell — as black, white, yellow, carnation,
azure ; sweet, bitter, insipid, fragrant.

8. Domestic utensils, instruments of husbandry, tools,
weapons, and things appropriated to sacred uses — these
are, a mortar, a dish, a measure, a tripod with ears, a
spoon, a knife, a hatchet, a pencil, a square vessel or
chest, a stand or seat, a barb or hook, a ploughshare, boat,
carriage; bow, arrow, dart, shield, lance, spear, drum;
an incense-pot, or an earthenware vase or urn ; fragrant

12 INFERENCES DEDUCIBLE FROM THE ELEMENTS.

wine used to invoke the descent of the gods ; the character
also denotes the herb from which it is made.

9. Abstract and concrete terms, minerals, and names of
things not reducible to any particular class — as, error,
strength, a journey, great, small, slender, long, one, two,
eight, a door, a receptacle, the flame of a candle, a covering
for the head, garments, a slight stroke, veins on wood or
stone, a channel for water to flow in, an instrument of
music, tiles.

10. Characters denoting action or passion, called by the
Chinese, living characters, in contradistinction to nouns,
which they designate dead characters; — these mean, to
creep, to step, to walk, to walk swiftly, to run, to fly, to
arrive at, to stop, to stand, to descend, to join hands, to
fight, to kill, to imitate, to use, to compare, to produce, to
see, to speak, to admonish, to divine, to disturb, to follow,
to enter, to protect, to cover, to owe, to collect, to fold, to
embroider, to tremble, to eat.

From the preceding classification we remark, first — that
the Chinese language appears to have been originally
framed with a view to depict natural and familiar objects :
secondly — that as the existence of many of the characters
indicates considerable progress in civilization, it is reason-
able to infer that this is a modified and improved form of
preceding systems based on the same principle : thirdly —
that in process of time many names of things were bor-
rowed to denote abstract ideas ; and hence, probably, the
origin of the term " borrowed characters," now used to
denote figurative language : fourthly — that the tenth class,
which we should call verbs, is derived from the names and
qualities of things, in accordance with the principle that

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OP THE SYMBOLS. 13

one Chinese character generally subserves the uses of an
adjective, a substantive, and a verb; as, ^ ta, great,
greatness, and to make great ; and *%[ shen, virtuous,
virtue, to make virtuous ; subject to no change but that of
a different tone in enunciation: fifthly — that we here
recognise the three great powers — Heaven, Earth, and
Man — into which the Chinese divide the universe, as the
foundation of their system of writing; and, therefore,
cannot but regard ideas as the principal end its symbols
were designed to answer, more especially as the repre-
sentations of things in ordinary use, and circumstances
occurring in daily life, were added to complete the system :
sixthly — it is manifest that these elementary signs have
no property in common with an alphabet, syllabic or
literal ; for, although particular sounds are appropriated
to them, they do not affect the name of any character of
which, as root, primitive or radical, they form a part; and
therefore it is evident, seventhly — that, so far as the
genius of the Chinese language is embodied in its pri-
mitives, it is totally distinct from an alphabetic tongue.

Western philologists, who, with little practical know-
ledge, frame theories on the origin of this language, egre-
giously mistake the true nature of the written medium ;
and as a specimen of their opinions, and the mode of rea-
soning adopted in support of them, is embodied in a recent
treatise on Chinese writing by Dr. Ponceau,* an American

• Hie title of the work is as follows : " A Dissertation on the Nature and
Character of the Chinese System of Writing, in a letter to John Yaughan,
Esq. By Peter S. Da Ponceau, LL.D., President of the American Philoso-
phical Society, of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, and of the Athc-
nsrmm of Philadelphia ; Corresponding Member of the Institute of France,
&c. &c. To which are subjoined a Vocabulary of the Cochin -Chinese Lan-
», by Father Joseph Marrone, R. C. Missionary at Saigon, with refer-

14 IMPORTANCE OP STUDYING CHINE8E.

philologist, I now proceed to examine his proposed theory,
with a view to prove that its principles not only differ
from those on which the best native and foreign Chinese
scholars interpret the language, but are at direct variance
with obvious facts of daily occurrence in its use and ap-
plication.

If the philosophy of an alphabetic language cannot
be understood without competent practical knowledge,
much more is indefatigable application essential to a just
acquaintance with the principles of the Chinese tongue,
destitute as it is of all known grammatical forms.

It is indeed highly gratifying to observe that ingenious
philosophers and persons of literary eminence, in Europe
and America, devote their ample powers to the cultivation
of the Chinese tongue ; and I most cordially sympathize
with Dr. Ponceau, when he says, " It is greatly to be
wished that this curious graphic system should be studied
with a view to the science of general philology/' It has
long been an established conviction of my mind, from
which I was principally induced to enter on the present
subject, that the study of symbolical language conduces
to elucidate the mind and manners of the human species ;
and that, when it becomes the sole written medium of a
numerous people, who also occupy an immense territory,
it is calculated to reflect new and interesting light on the
position of man as a moral, intellectual, and physical

ences to plates containing the characters belonging to each word, and with
Notes showing the degree of affinity existing between the Chinese and Cochin-
Chinese Languages, and the use they respectively make of their common sys-
tem of writing. By M. De Pawn, late Consul of France at Richmond, in
Virginia. And a Cochin-Chinese and Latin Dictionary, in use among the
R. C. missions in Cochin-China. Published by order of the American Philo-
sophical Society, by their Historical and Literary Committee. Philadelphia,
1838."

MISTAKES OP WESTERN PHILOLOGISTS. 15

being. To say nothing of the claims of philosophy and
general science, if our political and commercial relations
with China be deemed worthy of honourable preserva-
tion, the period is arrived when the utmost attention
should be devoted to the cultivation of her original lan-
guage, by which alone her theories of political economy
and moral sentiments can be understood. Not only would
more accurate information then be procured respecting
this distant and mighty empire, but we should be able to
communicate to her subjects a knowledge of the most
valuable of our arts and sciences, and thereby obtain
facilities for diffusing the important doctrines of Divine
Revelation.

But while efforts to rouse the attention of the learned
to this mighty topic evince laudable zeal for the culture
of a long-neglected branch of philology, they are con-
ducted on principles strangely at variance with the dic-
tates of sound philosophy and true wisdom. The argu-
ment & priori may be of some importance, where probable
circumstances are not contradicted by facts, but must
sorely be altogether inadmissible when employed, not only
as a substitute for logical deductions from facts esta-
blished beyond all reasonable doubt, but even to discredit
their very existence.

The following propositions are quoted from Dr. Pon-
ceau, as representing the sentiments of numerous philolo-
gists in Europe and America practically unacquainted
with Chinese :* —

44 1. That the Chinese system of writing is not, as has
been supposed, ideographic; that its characters do not

• See p. 31 of the Introduction to the above work.

16

nr ponceau s LEXir.itAPinc sv-if.m.

represent ideas, but words; and therefore I have called
it lextgriiji/iir.

" 2. That ideographic writing is a creature of the ima-
gination, and cannot exist, but for very limited purposes,
which do not entitle it to the name of writing.

" 3- That among men endowed with the gift of speech,
all writing must be a direct representation of the spoken
language, and cannot present ideas to the mind abstracted
from it.

" 4. That all writing, as far as we know, represents
language in some of its elements, which are words, syl-
lables, and simple sounds. In the first case, it is lexi-
graphic, in the second syllabic, and in the third alpha-
betical or elementary.

" 5. That the lexigraphic system of the Chinese cannot
be applied to a polysyllabic language, having inflections
and grammatical forms; and that there is no example of
its having been so applied, unless partially or occasionally,
or as a special, elliptical, and enigmatical mode of com-
munication, limited in its uses ; but not as a general sys-
tem of writing intended for common use,

" 6. That it may be applied to a monosyllabic lan-
guage, formed on the model of the Chinese ; but that
it will necessarily receive modifications and alterations,
which will produce material differences in the value and
signification of the characters between different languages,
however similar in their original structure ; therefore,

" 7. That nations whose languages, like the Japanese,
and, it is said, the Loo-chuan, are polysyllabic, and have
inflections and grammatical forms, although they may
employ Chinese characters in their alphabet, cannot pos-
sibly understand Chinese books and manuscripts, unless

MISTAKES OF DR. PONCEAU. 17

they have learned the Chinese language; and that, if
those nations whose languages are monosyllabic, and who
use the Chinese characters lexigraphically, can under-
stand Chinese writings without knowing the language, it
can only be to a limited extent, which it is one of the
objects of this publication to ascertain.

"Although strongly impressed with the conviction of
the truth of these propositions, it is, nevertheless, with
great deference that I submit them to the judgment of
the learned/'

Such are the propositions Dr. Ponceau proceeds to
establish, on no better basis than the theoretical impos-
sibility of a language without an alphabet; for on this
figment alone, it may be truly affirmed, his opinions and
conclusions rest. Ignorance of a subject on which there
are conflicting statements may be reasonably alleged as
an excuse for withholding an opinion; but can hardly,
with persons of common sense, justify opposition to prac-
tical scholars : yet, if we may judge from the tenor of his
remarks,* Dr. Ponceau considers his ignorance of Chinese
a more valuable qualification for testing the true nature
of the system of writing, than the practical wisdom of the
Catholic missionaries, Sir G. T. Staunton, Dr. Morrison,
Dr. Marshman, and all other Chinese scholars, foreign
or native, whom he does not hesitate to designate enthu-
siasts; at whose feet, however, it behoves him to sit, not
as a critic, but as a disciple, if he would acquire a just
knowledge of the language. It is a remarkable pheno-
menon, whether it belong to the intellectual or moral
world, that practical sinologists, who concurrently repre-
sent the principle of grouping ideas together to form a

• Lette; to John V«ughan, Esq., pp. 5, 6, 7, and 108.

C

18

CHINESE WRITTEN LANGUAGE ONE,

new thought aa characteristic of the language, are all
deeply involved in error; while the exclusive ability to
extricate them from it rests with one who, according
to his own testimony, cannot translate a single Chinese
term of the most familiar description. Chinese scholars,
many years in the habit of constant intercourse, both
written and oral, with learned natives — who have read
the literature of the country, translated the works of other
nations into the Chinese tongue, and published important
treatises, in different European languages, illustrative of
its properties, are all, it should seem, either destitute
of the understanding necessary to attribute its charac-
teristics to their proper source, or possessed of no higher
moral sense than wilfully to mislead their confiding dis-
ciples of the western hemisphere; while one who pretends
lo no acquaintance with the language, yet ascribes to it
a national alphabet, misinterprets the design uf its radicals,
and alleges that its symbols are necessarily read "by all
in the same words,"* contrary lo facts established by the
daily practice of the Chinese, who throughout China un-
derstand Imperial edicts written in the same character,
while the sounds of those characters differ in every pro-
vince, is alone possessed of the sagacity requisite to decide
on the nature of the Chinese system of writing.

Circumstances in favour of the ideographic nature of
the Chiuese language are disposed of in the following
summary manner: — " It is true that, in the grouping of
characters to represent single words, the inventors have
called to their aid the ideas which the words express :
thus the character which answers to the word hund is
grouped with diose which answer to words expressing

• Lrllrr lo Jntin Vaughn, Esq., p. 4

COLLOQUIAL DIALECTS NUMEROUS. 19

manual operations. But this was not done with a view
to an ideographic language ; it was merely an auxiliary
means to aid in the classification of the numerous signs,
which otherwise the memory could not have retained.
The sinologists see great beauties in these associations)
of which I am not competent to speak. I suspect, how*
ever, there is in that more imagination than reality."*
No reason whatever is assigned for this opinion. It must
be correct, because Dr. Ponceau's theory cannot dispense
with it ; and this is all the satisfaction afforded to the in*
quirer. But the doctor must have been grossly imposed
upon, when he asserts, "that versification, poetry, and
measured prose, is written in the pretended ideographic
character, word for word, exactly as it is spoken ; and
no two readings can absolutely take place ;" than which
nothing can be more false. In the seventh section, which
is devoted to the overthrow of the ideographic system,
the doctor severely censures the sentiments of those
whom he styles " the enthusiasts of Chinese writing" —
a singular misapplication of terms — that the practical
scholar should be the enthusiast, and the imaginative
theorist the only safe guide. Entirely unacquainted with
both the Mandarin and Fuh-keen dialects, about which
lie writes, the doctor still, in his own opinion, so satis*
factorily refutes his opponents, that at the conclusion
of two or three pages, which exhibit most deplorable
ignorance of the subject, he adds : " I am almost ashamed
to have to answer such arguments" — those of Dr. Marsh-
man and others, on the nature of Chinese writing ; " and
yet they are urged by men to whose opinions on other
subjects I would submit with respect." With a due sense

• Letter to John Vau-hftn, Esq., p. 109.

c 2

20 DIALECTS SPOKEN BY CHINESE COLON1ST8.

of the doctor's condescension in deigning to answer the
arguments of practical sinologists, which are impugned
evidently because they are misunderstood, I must candidly
acknowledge that I have been involved in a dilemma equally
trying— between a conviction of the undignified employ-
ment of refuting his misstatements, and an apprehension
that, if uncontradicted, they might pass currently for
truth among those who are ignorant of Chinese. My
apology, therefore, for noticing them so extensively rests
not on their profoundness or originality, but simply on
the danger of their favourable reception among alphabetic
philologists, to whom they may appear plausible.

The great obstacle to the progress of truth, in Dr.
Ponceau's mind, seems to arise from a preconceived
theory, despite the most stubborn facts, and the most
logical conclusions derivable therefrom. He fosters error
not so much from ignorance of the allegations of compe-
tent witnesses, as disinclination to believe their testimony,
which he unceremoniously avows, without the slightest
attempt to invalidate it. His account of the dialects
of the Chinese empire, especially the Fuh-keen, is most
incorrect. Part of this incorrectness, however, may be
owing to Dr. Marshman, from whose " Clavis Sinica" it
is taken, and who did not understand Fuh-keen. But it is
Dr. Ponceau who says, " we know very little of the dia-
lects of the Chinese empire, as we are not permitted to
penetrate into that country." Does the learned doctor
not know that there are colonies of Chinese in every part
of the Indian Archipelago, where hundreds of thousands
are permanently located, who speak the Fuh-keen, Canton,
and other dialects, and that opportunities of intercourse,
by means of commerce, are afforded continually with

FUH-KBBN, CANTON, AND MANDARIN DIALECTS. 21

natives from the coast of China, at Singapore, Java,
Bankok, and many other settlements in those seas ? The
grand principle of the language, which the doctor has
yet to learn, and with which he must become familiar
if he ever be a competent Chinese scholar, notwithstand-
ing its enthusiastic nature, is to distinguish the written
system from the colloquial medium. For so far from there
being one set of sounds invariably affixed to the charac-
ters throughout the empire, as the doctor asserts, each
province has its own mode of speaking; and while
the Chinese have but one literature, and one method of
writing, these characters nevertheless preserve the same
power and order, and are understood alike by every one
capable of reading, from Peking to Canton. The doctor
seems to consider the provincial dialects as written.* I
lived for several years at a British settlement in the Indian
Archipelago, amongst Chinese who used the Full-keen,
Canton, and Mandarin dialects ; and I have yet to be
informed that there is more than one written language.
I studied the Mandarin under the direction of a learned
graduate, sent from China Proper, by the late Dr. Morrison ;
and, having acquired it, could communicate, by merely
altering the sounds, with the natives from the province
of Canton. I also studied the Fuh-keen dialect, under a
native of that province, who had taught his countrymen
for many years. The teachers in both cases read the
same boohs, composed in the same style, and attached
precisely the same idea to the written symbols ; but could
mot understand each other in conversation. I have, indeed,
been the interpreter between two Chinese from different
provinces, whose dialects 1 had studied ; and, therefore,

• Letter to John Vaughan, E§q., tee p. 83.

22 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FUH-RBEN AND MANDARIN.

so far from admitting the truth of the assertion-— " if two
Chinese read the same book, they will read it exactly
alike, there will not be the difference of a single syllable,"*
I must declare, from long experience, that it is absolutely
false ; unless it applies to persons of the same district ;
which would, in that case, be totally inapplicable, it
having never been alleged that the Chinese could not
converse together ; but I do aver that a Fuh-keen man,+
who only spoke his native dialect, would find as much
difficulty in communicating with a person who spoke no
other than the Mandarin, as an Englishman, knowing
only his own tongue, would with a Frenchman or a
German; and yet he would understand the Mandarin
better than a provincial dialect. There is in the Fuh-keen
dialect the peculiarity of two different classes of sound ;
one used in reading, the other in speaking ; the former
of which, in the native patois, is designated ge yim, " cha-
racters' sounds" — the other, hong wa," spoken language;"
so that, in reading a Chinese book, you not only pro-
nounce the characters differently from the Mandarin, but
are also taught another class of sounds, to be used in
conversation, or when expressing ideas without written
symbols ; a practice in direct opposition to the statement,
that " no two readings can absolutely take place." But
to exemplify this remark by an illustration or two. A
student of this dialect must first commit to memory, from
a book, the reading sounds of the character ; and after
having become familiar with a page or two, he learns a

* Letter to John Vaughan, Esq., p. 109.

t Some yean ago a man from the province of Ftth-kcen went up to Peking
to present a j>ctition to the Emperor ; but, knowing only his native dialect,
he was utterly unintelligible at court.

8PBCIMEH8 OF THE DIFFERENCE.

23

few of the characters marked with red ink, which the
teacher explains, vivd voce, in the conversational medium.
The process of instruction is, with this exception, the
same as in the Mandarin.

The following characters are given as they are pro-
nounced in the Mandarin and in the Ftih-keen dialects ;
the former of which, it will be observed, is the same in
reading and speaking ; while the latter not only differs
generally from the Mandarin, but also from itself, by
superadding sounds in speaking, totally distinct from
those used in reading the character.

MAHDAfttir,

FUH-K1BN,

rUH-KXBN,

MBANIMO.

reading and speaking.

reading.

speaking.

ft

t'sung

t'sheong

fan

to follow

A

• •

jin

• •

jm

l&ng

man

^

t'e£n

t'eam

tshan

a field

m

wan

booun

mooine

to ask

tf

hing

heeng

keang

to walk

X

foo

hoo

neong-pay

father

@

muh

bok

bak-chew

the eye

x

teen

t een

tne

heaven

3

swan

sooan

sooine

to reckon

#

shoo

see

c'hait

a book

As my object, in these examples, is to show the differ-
ence between the Nan-king, or Mandarin, and the
Fuh-keen, I trust I have quoted a sufficient number to
constitute a fair specimen of the characteristics of each,
and to evince the impracticability of intelligible conver-
sation between two individuals not specially instructed
in the same provincial dialect. It is, on the other hand,
equally true that these different sounds are attached to

24 SYMBOLS THE 8AME, WORDS DIFFERENT,

the same symbols, and that these symbols convey pre-
cisely the same idea to the eye of every person in the
empire, each of whom, though only taught in his native
province, could immediately communicate intelligibly by
writing with the natives of another province, ever so
distant, while they could not converse together. What,
then, is the inference deducible from this circumstance? —
that the character is not ideographic, and only conveys
an idea through a certain fixed sound ? Surely no con*
siderate person could thus argue against palpable facts ;
and yet the first proposition quoted above declares that
" the Chinese system of writing is not, as has been
supposed, ideographic — that its characters do not repre-
sent ideas, but words." #

Whether this be in accordance with fact, let the reader
judge. The truth is, the idea of an alphabet operates on
the mind of a verbal philologist as a sort of literary mono-
mania, by which all his speculations are hampered, and of
which he must rid himself entirely, before he can be
brought to entertain correct views of symbolical language.
The Chinese tongue knows nothing of an alphabet of any
description ; the anti-symbolist will not believe in the
existence of a language without one, and therefore con-
fuses himself and his disciples by a mere play upon the
terms — * lexigraphic alphabets/ * syllabic alphabets/ and
1 elementary alphabets/^ one of which he would fain affix
to the Chinese characters ; but it is a useless addition,
and in their energetic metaphors would be represented
by the figure of a snake with feet — an encumbrance, rather
than a benefit. But how will the advocate of such a

* See p. 15 of this Essay.

t See proposition 4th, as quoted above, p. 16.

IK ALL THE PROVINCES OF CHINA. 25

system, on the principles it embodies, explain the simple
fact, that while numerous conventional sounds, varying in
districts as well as provinces, are attached to one symbol—
and it might admit of an indefinite number without vio-
lating any law of the written language — there should be
the same explanation given of its meaning throughout the
empire? On the ideographic system all is plain. The
meaning and form of the characters are uniform, and, so
to speak, inherent ; while the sounds are not inherent, but
conventional. The grand error committed by western
philologists who have studied the principles of such
Oriental tongues as the Chinese, Cochin-Chinese, Egyp-
tian, and others, appears to consist in comparing oral
affinities instead of similar forms, and in taking for granted,
contrary to established fact, that each character has a
distinct sound ; whereas, without the written medium of
such languages, they would neither possess unity of purpose
nor any fixed principle of interpretation. The characters,
indeed, are the mode of communication, to which the dia-
lects are subservient. Hence the opinion often advanced
by those who have never studied Chinese, that the lan-
guage may be learned without the symbols, ought to be
totally reversed ; since the graphic system which guides
the idiom may be acquired for all useful purposes of read-
ing and writing, without the ability to converse ; while no
one ignorant of the character can speak Chinese to any
extent. A person living among natives might, indeed,
obtain some knowledge of their colloquial medium without
the symbols, but it would consist principally of names of
familiar objects and ideas, which, abstracted from their
written forms, no Chinaman would ever honour with the
designation of scholarship. I am aware that there have

26 ROMAN LETTER8 INADEQUATE TO

been attempts to make vocabularies of sounds in the
Roman letter, unaccompanied with the Chinese character ;
but these are useless to natives, and of no further benefit
to foreigners than to remind them of symbols previously
acquired, which must always be present to the eye of the
mind before it can apprehend the specific idea attached to
the sound.

I am happy to be able to adduce the testimony of the
late Dr. Morrison from a preface to his last philological
work, " A Vocabulary of the Canton Dialect," in which
he intimates that it was his intention, originally, to have
omitted the Chinese characters, but it was found on trial
that they could not be dispensed with. " The want of the
character/' says the doctor, " made the mode of commu-
nication very imperfect, unless the learner had the con-
stant assistance of a person who already knew the Roman
letters and the Chinese language. To convey the spoken
language without the character is not impracticable, but
is difficult, and often embarrassing to the learner; whereas,
the character being presented to the eye of the native
makes all simple and easy. The writer has therefore
failed in his expectation." Whence the primary object
of a foreigner who wishes to succeed in his intercourse
with China must be, at all events, to acquire a knowledge
of the character, with the facility of pronouncing it accord-
ing to the usage of the Mandarins. Into whatever pro-
vince he then goes, he will have made provision for speedy
success in attaining the local dialect, if its acquisition be
needful ; since his knowledge of their literature will pro-
cure him the respect of the natives, and his ability to
write the symbols supply an efficient medium of commu-
nication with them on all possible subjects.

RBPRB8BHT THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 27

I must still request the reader to bear in mind the dis-
tinction between what Chinese writers call the colloquial
medium, and the mere sounds of the characters. To all
the symbols there are names attached, many of which are
the same, and could not be understood by natives without
seeing their different forms in writing, unless they were
the sounds of characters taken from a book written in the
usual mode of conversation. There is, indeed, nothing
more difficult, even to an experienced scholar, than to affix
the appropriate symbols to homophonous words written in
the Roman letter. It is remarkable, not only that each
sound consists of but one syllable ; or, more correctly, is
effected by a single impulse of the breath, but that many
different ideas having diversified symbols should be pro-
nounced alike. In exemplification of the comparative
number of written forms attached to one sound, I may
adduce the words Uan, U, cAtn, he, and e, perhaps of the
most frequent occurrence in the Chinese language, each
of which, in the preceding order, has, respectively, sixty,
eighty, one hundred, one hundred and eighty, and two
hundred and sixty-five symbols, every one differing in
form and meaning. This comparison is deduced from the
abstract of Morrison's Dictionary , # syllabically arranged
in the order of the English alphabet, which comprises
only about one-third of the characters explained in the
first part, and therefore is to be considered as a specimen
on a reduced scale. It will hence, I apprehend, appear
clear to the reader, that unless one specific character be
imprinted on the retina, concurrently with the aural im-
pression produced by the sound, the latter cannot convey
to the mind any definite idea. Some illustration of this

• Vol.1. P»rtII.

28 MODE OP DISTINGUISHING

circumstance is afforded by a proper name in English,
representing numerous individuals totally unlike in person,
of different families, dissimilar in rank and station, who
could not be recognised without some distinctive prae-
nomen or characteristic appellative; but the sight of
whom, to one acquainted with several of that name, would
immediately suffice. The Chinese symbol, delineated by
the pencil, may be regarded as a representative of the
idea, which it is impossible to mistake; while a single
verbal name would be so ambiguous as to require it either
to be written or coupled with a synonymous character of
a different sound. For example, the word tsze has the
following variety of graphic forms, according to the idea
it is designed to express; namely, -^- son; ^ self; ^1
literature; 4& tenderness ; J|ftj£ moral defect ; xj3 sacrifice;
V^ to state to a superior; |||| to bestow on an inferior;
about which, though thus isolated, there is not the slight-
est ambiguity when written. But in order to make the
particular idea intelligible in conversation tsze requires to
be associated with the following words : E3 urh ; P ke;
jr wan; ^ pei; ^ ping; ,|g sze; ]§£ pin; ^
shang ; the union of which in this manner — urh-tsze, son ;
tsze-ke, self; tsze-wan, literature ; tsze-pei, compassion ;
tsze-ping, sickness ; tsze-sze, sacrifice ; tsze-pin, to state
to a superior ; shang-tsze, to bestow on an inferior —
constitutes the broad distinction between the colloquial
and classical style of writing. Authors who write in the
familiar manner would use two symbols ; those who affect
the ancient sententious style, only one. It is the names
of symbols in the latter style which are so frequently con-
founded with the oral language ; whereas, writers on Chi-
nese, who use the term oral and colloquial medium, never

HOMOPHONOU8 WORDS COLLOQUIALLY. 29

mean the sounds of written composition, except in the
most familiar style ; and then the term colloquial is as
applicable to writing as speaking. Of this, however, some
foreign scholars appear to have no conception, or they
would not have called the Mandarin, which is only a par-
ticular mode of orally distinguishing the character, the
modern language of China, in contradistinction to the
classical style of antiquity.

Now since there are eighteen provinces in China, and
the mode of conversation between the natives in one
district differs totally from that used in another, while
according to the verbal theorist each character of the
language is the representation of a specific sound, through
which alone the idea is conveyed, it may not be imperti-
nent to ask which of the many sounds now given to a
symbol was the original one ? This character /v is pro-
nounced in Mandarin jin, in Canton yun, in Fuh-keen
limy — can the advocate of that theory tell us which of
these sounds the figure was designed to paint ? The idea
it conveys, notwithstanding the ridicule attempted to be
attached to the notion, not only throughout China, but
also in Japan, Cochin-China, Corea, and the Loo-choo
islands, is " man ;" although the sounds attached to it —
the vocables by which the idea is represented — entirely
differ in each country, as it is reasonable to suppose they
would, without the guidance of an alphabet. The alpha-
betic philologist forgets that syllables and words, strictly
speaking, belong only to alphabetic languages, and that
sound cannot bear the same relation to a written system
without an alphabet, that it does to one whose distin-
guishing characteristic is the reduction of sound to its
first elements by means of letters. Sounds, in Chinese,

30 CHINESE LANGUAGE NOT ALPHABETICAL.

whatever may be asserted to the contrary, are known only
as the names of symbols, and might with equal propriety
have been exchanged for others, monosyllabic or poly-
syllabic : thus if some persons were to agree to call this
figure J\^ man ; others, homo ; others, avOpamoc > others,
DIM ; others, orang ; provided they all attached the same
idea to it, this diversity of pronunciation could not change
its form, or interfere with its order in a sentence, both
which properties exist independently of sound ; and con-
sequently the idea would be equally intelligible to all when
written, and equally obscure when spoken. It is a great
mistake to call the primitives an alphabet, with which, as
that term is usually understood, they have nothing in
common, their office, as literal or syllabic, having no influ-
ence over sound; nor have they any alphabetic existence,
except in the imagination of misguided foreigners. Such
a theory would indeed go to prove that the Chinese have
no fixed medium of intelligible communication ; for if their
characters have no ideas other than as connected with
sounds similar to an alphabet, then a character composed
of several symbols, each of which has a distinct meaning,
cannot possibly convey a complex idea, because every
Chinese character, however complex its form, is expressed
by a simple, monosyllabic sound, usually, though not uni-
formly, different from that of any of its component parts,
and therefore the Chinese system of writing has no ideas ;
and as their spoken medium is very imperfectly under-
stood without a knowledge of the character, the logical
conclusion to which an unprejudiced mind must come is,
that the Chinese have no certain medium of communi-
cation, either verbal or graphic. Still it is this system for
which the learned American contends : I will therefore

spkimbhs of the composition op symbols. 31

pre it in his own words. " So* far at least no sign ap-
pears of an ideographic language, as the Chinese writing
has been called* Its object, as far as we have seen, is
not to recal ideas to the mind abstracted from sounds,
but the sounds or words in which language has clothed
those ideas. The written signs do not represent sounds
in the elementary form of letters, but in the compound
form of syllables and words. They have precisely the
same effects as syllables and words, and do not advance a
step farther into the ideal world/'f

According to this statement, the following characters
f8 J^E S? iSI H ought to be pronounced agreeably
to the elements of which they are composed ; namely, the
first in order, jjj£ she, heuh, tow, these being the sounds of
the component symbols ; Jfi she, " supernatural mani-
festation;*' jU) heuh, " a song;" and ]5_ tow, "a vessel;"
which, united, mean, " rites, decorum, propriety, the prin-
ciples of social order and personal politeness, civil rank
and religious homage, rites and ceremonial usages gene-
rally." But what is the fact ? It is pronounced le, a sound
totally different from any of these : the second jj& com-
posed of ^3 ya, "teeth," yT wan, " literature," J han,
" a shelter," and ^ maou, " hair," means the tail of a
horse or cow ; strong curly hair ; hair in a mixed, con-
fused state; and, hence, every thing very small or minute :
it is also pronounced le, equally unconnected with the
sounds of its component parts ; the third fip compounded
of 7F ho, " grain," 7j\ cho, " to pour out," and ||? hih,
" black," signifying black ; and a black and yellow cow
said to resemble a tiger, has the same sound, le ; the

* Dr. Pooceu, from page 70 to 81.
f See Dr. Ponceau, tec. 2, page 24.

32 IDEAS, NOT WORDS, UNITED IN FORMING SYMBOLS.

fourth ]|£ is formed of ^ ckuy, " wings," and ;!Jfc che, "to
disperse ;" hence the principal idea is " to separate from,
or " to depart ;" the fifth, composed of ^p yuh "a diamond"
and J^ le, means " to work or polish gems, to control, to
rule, to pay attention to ;" hence its secondary meanings
are — " principles in matter — in bodies — in man — in the
universe — a principle of order and of immateriality."'
From these examples, which are all pronounced le, it is
evident that sounds were not intended to be conveyed
by the component parts of the symbols ; that although a
portion of the character sometimes gives the sound to the
whole (as in the last of those quoted above), it is itself
composed of elements with whose sounds it has no affi-
nity ; and that in the composition of symbols there is an
association of ideas, from which their form and meaning
are both ultimately derived. Dr. Ponceau assures his
readers, with a confidence justifiable only in one who had
been present at their original formation, that the Chinese
symbols were not intended primarily to represent ideas,
but sounds. On the question, however, how these sounds
were to be represented by such means, the doctor sheds
no light whatever. " The ideas," he says, u were only an
ingredient in the method which they adopted, but it was
by no means their object to present them to the mind
unaccompanied by the word which was their model, and
which, if I may use a bold metaphor, sat to them for its
picture ; a picture indeed which bore no resemblance to
the object, but which was sufficient to recal it to the
memory."* Now, before we concede this principle, it
certainly behoves the doctor to inform us to which of the
numerous symbols mentioned above, the words, tsan, that

* Introduction, page 14.

HUMBROUS SYMBOLS OF ONE SOUND. 33

has sixty, le eighty, chin a hundred, he a hundred and
eighty, and e two hundred and sixty-five different pic-
tures, sat for their likenesses ; each of which, considered
as a symbol of thought, is pregnant with significancy
and adorned with beauty ; whereas, on the opposite prin-
ciple, the whole number of forms belonging to each of the
examples — and many more might be adduced — is neces-
sarily one confused mass of unmeaning, useless figures ;
since if the utility of the character be confined to its
sound, and there is but one sound to each class, the rest
of the characters are superfluous. What then becomes of
Dr. Ponceau's metaphorical embellishment, totally repug-
nant as it is both to sound reasoning and common sense,
when applied to the principles of the Chinese system of
writing ? But there is another view of the case — to my
mind most decisive. Not only does the ideographic sys-
tem derive support from the great variety of characters,
of different forms and significations, attached to one
sound, but also from the different names given to the
same symbol in different provinces and districts, which
was originally a rude delineation of one object ; a circum-
stance which may very naturally suggest the inquiries —
which of these sounds sat for its picture ? what became
of the original sound ? — for, on this principle, there could
be but one — and how did numerous sounds occur in a
system which supposes each character specially invented
to delineate one particular sound ? The doctor professes
his entire ignorance, in its literal meaning, of the phrase

$; 4|- 6*J B^ i^./** *h* n * e *h sne how, " the period when the
body puts forth itself" — which he quotes from Morrison's
Dictionary, under the word "puberty/' but supposes it
does not militate against his views ; and yet he attempts

D

34 TRUE NATURE OF CHINESE ETYMOLOOY.

to correct Dr. Morrison's translation of *^ T|r kwuy e,
" association of ideas in compounding characters ;" which,
though two distinct symbols, he calls one word, and de-
fines, " the association or combining of several words in
their appropriate characters to represent another word :"
which is given as the translation of humy, " to assemble,
to associate, to combine;" and e, "an idea, intention,
meaning," making both characters to be only one word.
Our learned theorist seems so strangely to misapprehend
the object of treatises on Chinese, that he quotes, in favour
of his own system, part of a translation, made by the late
M. Remusat, professor of Chinese at Paris, of a brief
comparison between symbolic and alphabetic tongues, as
exemplified in the Chinese and the English (inserted in
Morrison's Dictionary), which I cannot but think totally
at variance with his views. The following translation,
from the original Chinese, contains all that relates to our
present subject. " The languages of the world are no
fewer than two hundred ; whose grammatical properties
and written forms differ considerably from each other.
The principles, however, on which their written systems
are framed, resolve themselves into two : — one conveying
sound and sense — the other imparting ideas, by figure,
without sound. Of the former class are the Man-chow
Tartar, the Sanskrit,* the English, and other languages of
the kingdoms of Europe in the western part of the world ;
of the latter class are the ancient Egyptian characters,
and the ancient and modern characters of China. Per-
haps, on comparison of the two modes, there will be some
difficulty in determining which is the superior. It is
certainly a defect in symbolic language, that, from in-

* The language of tj£ Fan.

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 35

aptitude to communicate its own sounds, the student
should be obliged to commit them to memory, and that
there should be no visible representative of abstract ideas,
which, though sought in the composition of the character,
will not (always) be found. But it also has its advan-
tages ; inasmuch as the form of the character, uninflu-
enced by local dialects, is preserved invariably the same ;
this is a point of much importance. The English lan-
guage is read from left to right, like the Man-chow Tartar,
with this exception, that the latter is read in columns
from the top to the bottom, and the former horizontally ;
the English has twenty-six letters (mother-spelling-cha-
racters), which, by changes of position and new combi-
nations, may be made to produce an infinite variety of
words and sounds. This alphabet resembles the method
of spelling resorted to in Kang-he's Lexicon, which was
framed for the purpose of communicating sounds, not
ideas ; only that by forming a word of alphabetic letters,
you can also produce an idea. Thus read the alphabet
arranged in order on the right, agreeably to the sounds
of the Chinese characters opposite to them, as they are
known at Nan-king — the Mandarin dialect — and you
will then have the pronunciation of the English spelling
letters." After giving directions to a native how to
acquire the method of spelling and reading English, the
author concludes by saying : — " Although the English
alphabet is the same as that of the ancient Romans,
the French, the Americans, and the Portuguese, and
their use of them the same, yet by different methods
of combination entirely different languages are pro-
duced."

From this notice of Chinese in its own tongue, the

d2

36 PROOFS OF ITS IDEOGRAPHIC NATURE.

writer evidently considers its characteristic feature to be,
not phonetic, but symbolic, in contradistinction to the
English, which embraces both properties ; he also takes
for granted that the Chinese has, strictly speaking, no al-
phabet, or he would not have explained the uses of an
alphabet as a novelty in the tongue in which he wrote.
He must likewise regard it as ideographic ; because the
advantages and defects he ascribes to the Chinese are not
applicable on any other principle. I do not know whe-
ther it be the composition of Dr. Morrison, or that of a
learned native under his superintendence ; but most pro-
bably it is the doctor's, who would submit it to his teacher
for revision; and, therefore, on either supposition, we have
the testimony of two very superior Chinese scholars to the
symbolical, and, consequently, ideographic nature of the
Chinese language. Dr. Ponceau, indeed, admits that
" the system adopted by the inventors of the Chinese
mode of writing, as it now exists, was that of recalling the
words of that language to the memory of the reader by
signs, descriptive, as much as possible, of their significa-
tion* — which, in my opinion, is virtually surrendering all
the peculiarities of his theory ; he has only to proceed one
step further, and deliberately ask himself how a people
without an alphabet are to represent to the eye the idea
of visible objects otherwise than by significant delineations
of them, and I think he will soon be satisfied of the
visionary nature of his favourite theory. Perhaps I ought
to apologize to my readers for detaining them so long in
exposing this system ; but, as Chinese scholars in Europe
and America are, unhappily, very few, and it is likely to
please persons wholly ignorant of the language, I felt it a

* Page 63.

CHINESE LEGEND OP THE ORIGIN OP WRITING. 37

duty to refute the erroneous notions advanced, not on ac-
count of their intrinsic value, but rather as representing
those of a class of persons without the means of precise
information.

Before, however, we dismiss this part of our subject, it
may be well to view it in two or three other points, which
will tend to confirm the soundness of our previous con-
clusions. The Chinese account for the origin of their cha-
racters in the following manner. It is received by them
as undoubted fact, that in high antiquity knotted cords
were used, instead of letters, to convey the purposes of
their rulers, and to constitute the signs of ideas. This
very imperfect instrument of interchanging thought was
'succeeded by the original symbols, from which the pre-
sent system of writing was derived; the invention of
which is attributed by Chinese historians to Tsang-hee,
who flourished in the reign of Hwang-te, upwards of
two thousand years prior to the Christian sera, and who,
from observing a certain constellation in the heavens, the
marks or veins on the shell of a tortoise, and the print
of a horse's foot on the ground, first conceived the idea of
framing a method of intelligible communication through
the medium of the eye, which, modified more or less by the
existing circumstances of successive dynasties, has pre-
vailed in all its essential particulars from that period to
the present. The design of its originators, from the tes-
timony of native scholars, was the best mode of affecting
the eye with thoughts, whose characteristics can be ac-
counted for on no other than the principle of ideography.
Inaccuracy in chronological and other minor details will
not affect the nature of the system. Its properties must
be determined by its internal evidence, whoever were its

38 ANCIENT 8YMBOLS PICTORIAL.

authors, whenever it was contrived, and whatever were the
immediate causes of its existence. The ultimate scheme
on which it was founded is reducible to a few simple
elements, denominated — resemblance to an object; as the
Q sun; ^) the moon ; £\^ a hill ; ^ a horse; <n> the
eye; j^ a boat; ^^ water; (Q the ear — reference to
some property or circumstance ; as J^ above ; ~|T below ;
— combination of thoughts; as-f^ faith, truth; compounded
of jin, a man, and yen, a word — sound of the object ; as
J^ ho, a river; ^£ keang, a torrent — contraries, by re-
versing or inverting the character; as ][£ ching, correct,
becomes, when reversed, J±f&, defective; and ifj che,
to grow out of the ground, inverted, makes *p TFl t*h *°
revolve, t^ go round — borrowed, supposed, or arbitrary
characters ; as ^ ling, to command; -^ chang, long;
the former of which is, by some, arranged under the
third class. The following remarks of Dr. Morrison, in
the introductory part of his dictionary,* are quoted not
only for the sake of his authority in Chinese matters, but
because they contain, in small compass, what the writer
conceives to be a graphic description of the properties of
the language. " To convey ideas to the mind by the eye,
the Chinese language answers all the purposes of a written
medium, as well as the alphabetic system of the west,
and, perhaps, in some respects, better. As sight is quicker
than hearing, so ideas reaching the mind by the eye are
quicker, more striking, and vivid, than those which reach
the mind by the slower progress of sound. The character
forms a picture which really is, or, by early associations,
is considered beautiful and impressive. The Chinese fine
writing (when fully understood, by dispensing with all the

* Page 11.

MODE OF COMPOUNDING PICTORIAL SYMBOLS. 39

minute particles and diffusive expressions, which are ab-
solutely necessary to give to sounds that variety which
makes them intelligible in spoken language) darts upon
the mind with a vivid flash ; a force and a beauty, of
which alphabetic language is incapable."

Having dwelt so long on the elementary properties of
the Chinese language, I proceed now to notice the methods
of forming abstract terms.

It may gratify the curiosity of the philosopher, and aid
the philological student, to adduce some examples illus-
trative of the process of thought, by which transitions
have been effected from the names and qualities of things
to abstract ideas, the symbols of which originated in mere
designations of material substances. I will take, first,
some general terms, which have a moral, physical, or me-
taphysical reference ; and afterwards proceed to such as
are designated connective and adversative particles, of
which the ruder forms of speech are usually, to a great
degree, destitute.

The character 4V hwa, composed of K jin> man, and
it pe t a spoon, or wooden ladle, with which flesh is
taken from the pot when performing the rites of sacrifice,
means generally to change; whose several applications
we shall briefly notice, after having sought the origin of
this idea from the two symbols of which it is formed.
A^ man, and ^ spoon, have certainly no apparent con-
nexion with any of the various senses now attached to
their symbolic union. But man, as the third power in the
universe, and, as a primitive of the language, giving birth
to numerous symbols more remotely or closely allied to
itself, occupies an important representative position.

40 NUMEROUS SIGNIFICATIONS OF ONE SYMBOL.

\/ spoon, is also yV man reversed. This is now the form
of the seal character Y^ ; so that the one part of the
symbol 4^ will consist of man in his proper position *P\ •
and the other part of man reversed f| ; whence probably
the idea of alteration, change, transformation, and other
similar meanings. But what may be termed the etymo-
logical question of a character has very little influence
over the numerous significations into which it may be sub-
sequently ramified; hence we find that a word having
once become the symbol of the ideas — change, transfor-
mation, alteration, transmutation — is applied, according
to existing notions of such subjects, to a change in the
state of man physically, to death, to the power residing in
nature, or the decrees of fate by which death is caused ;
and in this relation, though not ordinarily used for death,
it is the converse of the term " to create ;" — applied to
life, it signifies a change of form or shape — a metamor-
phosis — as opposed to oviparous and viviparous crea-
tures; — applied to animals, plants, and other natural
objects, it expresses a change in their state, circumstances,
or existence ; where there is an easy transition to arti-
ficial being — from life itself to things without life, which
administer to its support, and many others with which
man is daily conversant ; for example, applied to food, it
denotes "digestion," — to circumstances, in connexion
with " create ," good fortune ; to trade, "barter;" — to
metals, " solution ;" — to ingredients mixed together, a
change of state ; — to fire, the act of being consumed or
destroyed. From these and similar uses of the term,
meanings are derived analogous to aerial changes ; whence
again expressions are supplied adapted to the effects of
moral and religious systems, the characteristics of which

ORIGIN OF FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS. 41

are modified by the philosophical and superstitious sen-
timents peculiar to the sect that adopts them ; thus from
the pen of a Confucian ^J/ would signify the renovating
effects produced by the examples of the sages on the
minds and conduct of their disciples ; — from that of an
alchymiflt, it would denote a transmutation of metals —
the art possessed exclusively by his fraternity ; — from that
of a Buddhist, who believes in the doctrine of transmi-
gration, it would mean to transform — that is, to assume
after death that body for which his conduct in life had
prepared his spirit, whether it were the body of an animal,
reptile, insect, or another human being ; hence the abso-
lute necessity of some acquaintance with the speculative
opinions of the author you are reading before you can
understand his language.

By the same word, in connexion with breath, vapour,
spirit, aerial transformations are expressed in contradis-
tinction to a change of organised material substances ;
whence are derived various moral uses of the term, accord-
ing to the sect adopting it, which are appropriated in pur-
suance of the senses already adverted to ; as $5( 4V the
effects of example, and the change of sentiment and
manners produced by instruction ; ffl ^^funghwa — SI
in Chinese, like rm in Hebrew, meaning not only mind,
but spirit, and moral influence — denotes, in allusion to
the wind shaking the forests and the fields of grain, the
change produced in the manners of the people by the good
examples and instructions of superiors ; wherefore moral
writers use the term by itself to indicate the cause of
repentance, a change of mind in the sense of fieravoiw, a
change from a vicious to a virtuous course of life, from a
barbarous condition to a state of civilization, and indeed,

42 IDEAS DERIVED FROM THE INVERSION

from any kind of improper behaviour to that which is
better ; while, by the sect of Fuh, it peculiarly denotes to
turn from the world to the priesthood.

This word, which, preceded by a term denoting an
efficient agent, implies the power to accomplish any moral
or spiritual change, will appear to the Biblical student
remarkably adapted to convey the doctrine of Holy Scrip-
ture on the renovation of the heart by the Sacred Spirit
Wfa ly* HiL > w ^^ e ^ e philologist, perceiving that there
is no sort of oral connexion between hwa and the sounds
jin and pe, must admit that the combination and transi-
tions, to which we have alluded, concur to elucidate the
ideographic nature of the character wholly irrespective of
sound.

There are two other terms composed of l^ repeated M/
and of course originally of the same symbols as ^U , only
that in this case both are reversed. The modern uses,
however, of V\/ appear to have been derived from the
meaning of the character, after it was appropriated, to
denote spoon, without any reference to TV the reverse of
which it represents ; since it means, " to compare one
thing with another ; to put in order ; to classify ; to col-
late; and, on epitaphs, to select and follow a virtuous
course. It also signifies to provide; to prepare; to
make ; to approach near to ; nearly related, or conti-
guously situated ; to reach or extend to ; to refer to ; to
equal; even; regularly placed; according with; cor-
responding to; close;" all which senses are said to be
derived from the circumstance of " two spoons being uni-
formly arranged on a table ;"* by which we are taught
how the pictorial system became subservient to the ideo-

* See Morr. Dictionary, Part II. Vol. I. page 644.

AND REVERSION OF SYMBOLS. 43

graphic, and how naturally the transition was made from
the familiar image of a common domestic utensil, arranged
in a certain position with another of its own kind, to the
abstract notions of comparison, classification, collation,
selection, approximation, contiguity, accordance, and if
we bear in mind the original of the characters — two men
—consanguinity also. I do not affirm that these signifi-
cations are naturally suggested to the mind the moment
the eye comes in contact with the symbol, or that such
notions naturally flow from it in its original state ; but
now that they are educed, there is an apparent congruity
and fitness by no means discreditable to the philological
and philosophical genius of the Chinese, even when tried
according to the European standard.

There is another character composed of the same two
symbols, but placed in a different relative position, from
which are derived significations of a nature quite contrary
to the preceding ; it is ))^ pih, two men with their backs
turned to each other, and signifies perverse ; to turn away
from ; to oppose ; to retreat ; to run away. Now although
these symbols as appropriately represent two spoons as
two men, with the exception of the reversed form of one
of them, yet the meaning of the character is evidently
derived from the original idea — man. The usual modern
sense of )J£ is north, but on what principle this was added
to its other senses does not appear. That these three
characters / ft^ / ££ and ^jU, in their simple state, each
representations only of two men, should be susceptible,
from the single circumstance of inverting or reversing the
form of one of them, of meanings so distinct, various, and
even opposite, is a circumstance worthy of the philo-
logist's most attentive consideration, while endeavouring

44 APPLICATION OF SYMBOLS

to explore the philosophy of the system to which they
pertain.

There are several other compounds of IA and W/
which I cannot now illustrate : two more, however, not
unworthy of notice, are 'foU pe, composed of y^ muk,
wood, and iA a spoon, a kind of hook or fork, anciently
used at funereal sacrifices, to raise victims out of the
boiler, and place them in the vessel prepared for them ;
probably not dissimilar to the flesh-hook used by the
servants of the Jewish priests, to extract their portion
out of the pot in which pieces of meat were boiling for
sacrifice. The other character to which I referred, y$
compounded of ~fy woman, and y)/ — still, be it remem-
bered, two men reversed — signifies a female ancestor;
thus also exemplifying the ideographic system; while
the former of the two characters seems to intimate a
practice not improbably of Hebrew origin, or derived
from a kindred source to that of many Jewish customs.

There is another class of symbols, whose etymological
import illustrates their symbolic nature ; while their moral
application, from its coincidence with some striking pas-
sages of Scripture, is possessed of an interest, with readers
of the Bible, unknown to the native Chinese. Take for
example, ^jj* to refine metals, compounded of A£ ho,
fire, and ~^fr keen, to separate ; which exhibits both the
act of separating the dross from the pure metal, and
the agent (fire) by which that separation is effected ; the
moral use of which, collated with that beautiful passage,
" He will sit as a refiner's fire," is illustrated in the
phrase J& J\^ Jj^* " to try men's hearts," by afflictive

* The sect of Taou say the two words j$&* J\ comprehend the whole
of their religion.

IN A MORAL 8BN8B. 45

events or prosperous circumstances — that is, to test human
character by means of providential dispensations ; phrase-
ology which, though of heathen origin, discovers a know-
ledge of human nature scarcely to be expected without
the aid of divine revelation ; since it involves the senti-
ment that prosperity is equally available with adversity to
ascertain the true state of the heart, and discriminate the
good from the bad ; just as the application of fire to metal
in its original state separates the prectous from the vile.
Another symbol, in which ^jc metal, occupies the place
of ^ fire, is formed of metal and to separate ; thus 4t
is expressive not only of refining metals in the furnace,
but of man undergoing a trial for the purpose of proving
and benefiting him ; whence it is used to denote experience,
maturity, expertness ; but whether in a good or bad sense
depends upon the context ; as £& $ife twan leen, would
mean a magistrate expert at making out cases in a bad
sense ; or an officer of a penal court, who, by skill in the
law, works or shapes a case to suit his purpose, and ruin
his opponent. Jj|i |jjn leen sze, a virtuous doctor of the
sect of Taou, or alchymical philosophy. $4 j£j£ lien
tsing ; the latter character signifying essence, ether, subtle
fluid, what is essential, would mean made quite perfect by
practice. The Chinese have a word of sacrificial import,
remarkable for the indirect sanction it gives to the opinion
that sacrifices of various kinds have been offered in China
from the earliest periods. It has two forms, M£ 'fcfl •
the former composed of ~& toe, perverse, opposed to,
rebellious, and Jt urh, the ear ; the latter of this symbol
and \fl\ heue, blood. Its general meaning, to shed the
blood of victims, is doubtless derived from its etymolo-
gical import, of removing the feathers from the ear of a

46 SIMILARITY OF CHINESE AND HEBREW METAPHORS.

bird, previously to the effusion of its blood in sacrifice ;
which is a ceremony indicative, by an expressive act, of
opening the ear of the divinity to the prayer of the peni-
tent, who makes this offering in the season of spring,
whence it is styled the spring sacrifice for expelling dis-
eases, and seems to proceed much on the same principle
as the ancient Jewish prophets and priests did, who per-
formed actions significant of the literal meaning of certain
words, under which were couched emblems of the future
occurrences and events they were divinely inspired to
foretell. The prophet Ezekiel, for example, was com-
manded, in token of the future destruction of Jerusa-
lem, to portray on a tile the city surrounded with im-
plements of war and the apparatus usually employed in
sieges, as emblems of its utter destruction ; also to lie
alternately on his left and on his right side for a certain
period, cutting off his hair, weighing it in balances, and
burning it with fire ; thus suiting the action to impend-
ing circumstances, and most emphatically declaring the
process to be employed in the accomplishment of the
events.* Many examples of a similar kind occur in
the Hebrew Scriptures. But the Jewish ceremony, most
apposite to the Chinese, is that of presenting birds in
sacrifice at the cleansing of the leper, which, while it
darkly prefigured general blessings under a more exalted
economy, also comprised, in the specific acts performed,
an adumbration of special mercies then enjoyed by the
grateful worshipper. Doubtless, the Chinese superstition
can never in any respect compete with the ordinations
of divine wisdom ; still, the sacrificer in the act of strip-
ping the feathers from the bird's neck, that the atoning

* Ezekiel iv. v. Leviticus xhr.

SYMBOLS DERIVED FROM THE HUMAN PRAME. 47

blood may more freely flow, is a lively portraiture of the
divinity, to whom the suppliant's prayer is addressed,
bending a propitious ear, in token of his admission that
every obstacle to the exercise of mercy towards the
offender is now removed; and not unworthy, as a mere
emblem, of a position among the types and shadows of
ancient Judaism. The Chinese, as already intimated,
make great symbolical use of the human frame and its
important members, of which many characters were ori-
ginally rude pictures, although now so modified as to
leave no traces of the resemblance. The ancient form of
: 9f urh, a child, may be called a pictorial representation,
as it was intended to delineate an infant before the sutures
of the cranium were completely ossified and joined ; from
which the modern form differs, but not much. Its figura-
tive meanings, grafted on the primary one, are — "feeble,
unimportant, infantile, small in quantity" and others which
that helpless state most fitly points out.

Urh ZE\ is designed to represent the human ear, and
any thing of a similar shape or use, as the ear of an animal,
the handle of a cup, and a kind of fungus that grows from
wo °d> iBP m £A urh, literally woods ears. Its figurative
tenses are — a soft ear, one ready to admit slanders, or
credulous of evil tales ; an eating ear, one that listens to
instruction indiscriminately, and greedily devours every
thing, without just perception or taste : but if the two
characters form but one symbol fjiB — its primary mean-
ing will be, a bait to catch fish ; its secondary one, a bait,
in a moral sense, to seduce persons to evil, by operating
on their cupidity. It also intimates distance in point of
time; as an ear-grandson is a great grandson's grandson,
a person descended from a distant ancestor, of whom he

48 SYMBOLS DERIVED FROM THE ORGANS OF SENSE.

has only heard. The Chinese have a proverb, formed into
an antithetic parallelism, which expresses their sense of the
inferior properties of the ear to the eye, as an organ of men-
tal perception : the second four characters, it will be seen,
answer to the first four, ^ fg] J^-J^ H^ W[ S^ft '
literally, " ear hears is empty, eye sees is solid ;" that is,
the report of an occurrence is unsubstantial, but the sight
of it is a reality. The process of symbolic composition
may be still further illustrated by the character nee jH*
composed of three ears, which signifies a whisper addressed
to the ear of another person ; the rationale of which, I
presume, is founded on the circumstance of one person
communicating only with one ear of another ; since four
ears would have been the appropriate symbol to represent
two persons talking together in the ordinary way : or it
may be intended to denote numerous communications
from ear to ear, without any respect to veracity. This
character, with the addition of hand, thus, ^^, named
she, signifies to lead by the ear; and thence, to take,
receive, direct, control, assume the general management
of affairs, either on one's own account or for another
person. The ear forms a part in the composition of words
signifying sound, whether it be mere utterance of the human
voice, or notes in music, tones and accent of the language,
public proclamation, praise, celebrity, moral teaching or
a verbal statement ; and, what is singular, it is used also
to specify a statement in writing. The symbol composed
of ear and an aperture, or quick, Jfj?J , denotes quickness
of hearing, and facility of mental perception. Urh, the
ear, also forms a part of words which signify to hear, to
listen, to discriminate sounds, to comply with, to hear
and determine causes as a criminal judge ; the last of

VARIED U8B8 OF THE SYMBOL FOR HEART. 49

which, gg ting, when placed under J* - yen, a covering
(thus, JOB ), signifies a place where causes are heard, a
court, a judicial apartment. Further illustrations might
be adduced, if amplification were necessary ; but the fore-
going symbols prove, that while the Chinese regard the
organs of sense as inlets of knowledge to the mind, they
are careful to assign them a position in the system of
morals corresponding to the office they sustain in the
economy of nature, whenever they are required to assume
a figurative sense. It is the same with the eye, the mouth,
the hands, the feet, and other members of the human
frame; all which, when introduced into the region of
morals, of metaphysics, or of fancy, are invested with
significations analogous to their import and use in the
department of physics.

A few illustrations of the symbol $f~ heart, whose ori-
ginal form was designed to represent the organ, will fur-
ther show the various senses in which a character is used,
and the methods of combination by which they are ob-
tained. In the phrase for palpitation of the heart, /P^ J^
tin sin, tan tih t|j *JI^, literally, heart ascending, heart
descending — the former character, composed of 1- shang,
to ascend, and heart, the latter of "Tf hea, to descend,
and heart — includes not only the idea of the physi-
cal action, but the figurative sense of an inconstant,
timorous mind. The same symbol, in combination with
others by which its sense is modified, expresses the va-
rious emotions, affections, and passions of the human
bosom ; as grief, joy, sorrow, anger, love, hatred, shame,
fear, remorse, tranquillity, tenderness, compassion, bene-
volence, favour ; these and numerous other characters
representing intellectual and moral qualities — as perspi-

E

50

IINATIONS OP THE SYMBOL FOR HI:

cuity, thought, intelligence, inclination, opinion, motive,
conscientiousness, virtue — are compounded of ,^ sin,
the heart, in which their diversified significations have
a natural origin. The following are specimens of the
method of composition r @ gnan, favour or grace, which
consists of gin RJ a cause, and jj\ the heart, intimat-
ing that free and sovereign favour is the cause of the heart,
and has its source purely in kind feeling, of which the
heart is the seat. R^ noo, anger, is formed of «V a slave,
and J\ the heart ; but whether the precise idea is that
of a mean and enslaved condition of the heart, does not
appear, although it is most probable. J»g seang, to think,
to consider, embraces the ideas of heart or mind, attached
and tending to an object. Jfi\ che, n/tame, from heart and
ear, because the ear is reddened and heated by a sense of
shame. 1=1 yew, sorrow, compounded of head and heart,
whence it originally signifies grief that nrises from one's
own thoughts, and an anxious state of mind. ^ rlu\ thr
will, embraces A\ sin, the heart, and -J- a scholar, states-
man, one who is complete, which is formed of - — - gth, one,
the beginning of numbers, and -+" shih, ten, which is a
perfect number with the Chinese: thus the two numerals
in their isolated state indicate the importance attached
to numbers; while in conjunction with the heart they
denote the point on which the mind turns, the inclina-
tion, the will — that which decides the movements of
the mind. ^^ that which emanates from the will;
ideas, thoughts, reflections, purpose, meaning, motive,
opinion, sentiment, is compounded of ^k gin, a sound, and
*£j, the heart. But these examples must suffice; many
characters, it is admitted, are formed of elements which
have lost all apparent congruity, or at least all connexion

AUXILIARY PARTICLES, WHENCE DERIVED. 51

between their present meaning and the original signifi-
cation of the several parts of which they are composed ;
bat this circumstance arises from the arbitrary changes
effected in the form of the character, whilst its meaning
remains unaltered.

The connective or auxiliary particles in Chinese com-
position are few, and derived from words applicable to
domestic matters, or material objects. ^ yew represents
the hand, as if to take with the hand ; hence the idea of
more, and then moreover, and further, still more, are its
chief meanings in composition. jj_ tseay, which is de-
fined, a particle ushering in a sentence, originally signi-
fied a vessel in which offerings were presented to the gods;
the two perpendicular strokes of the character representing
its feet, and the lower horizontal stroke the ground ; but
it is now used as an expletive, as an expression of doubt,
and as an inferential particle ; ideas that certainly have
no apparent connexion with a sacrificial vessel, which the
two sides and the base of the character were designed to
represent, unless it be in the offering of additional ideas
to the reader's notice, which is rather a bold metaphor.
3n «r h is sometimes disjunctive, sometimes copulative;
affirms a proposition at the beginning of a sentence, or in
connexion with P e, at the close of it, intimates that the
sense is exhausted : its original meaning is whiskers, the
hair on the side of the cheek. The Chinese use numerous
euphonic particles at the end of periods, purely to gratify
the ear, which they designate empty characters, in con-
tradistinction to solid characters, meaning thereby those
which convey ideas. J3 nae > " but," defined to be, a
ptrtifttf connecting the preceding with the following, is
also used as a substantive verb. There are others of an

b2

52 ARTICLES SUPPLIED IN CHINESE

adversative and copulative nature, whose presence indi-
cates a degree of refinement and taste. Particles, how-
ever, cannot be said to be common to the Chinese lan-
guage on comparison of their frequency in European
tongues; but when skilfully applied by an experienced
scholar, their very infrequency augments their force and
contributes to perspicuity. Transitions of thought in
composition are usually made with the greatest abrupt-
ness, undistinguished by any closing or introductory par-
ticle, except where euphony seems to require a prolon-
gation of sound after the sense is completed.

Articles, or characters to represent them, are not em-
ployed in Chinese with the same frequency as in Euro-
pean and some Asiatic languages. The indefinite article
only occurs where the sense would be obscure without it,
and then it is denoted by the numeral one. It would
not be expressed in such a sentence as the following : " if
a man were to do so," which would be rendered into
Chinese ^ ^ ^ ^ j^ " man if do this kind ;" but
if the sense were to be restricted to an individual, as in
the phrase "to make an individual a rule for all the
people in the world," it would then be expressed by

\%— ^ttA^^n^^A " take ° ne p ers ° n

man give law heaven below's man." The definite article
is represented in those sentences which require the mind
to be directed to a specific circumstance or object, as

the saying, but never saw the person;" meaning, " I have
heard such a thing talked of, but never saw the individual
who could do it;" or ZjC ft 3£ f£ ^ ^ ^ Jft
" not in the station, nor plan the rule," words by which
Confucius expressed his determination not to interfere with

BY NUMERALS AND PRONOUNS. 53

government measures when he was out of office. These
two sentences are constructed of parallelisms, the force of
which, having the same number of characters in each
part, is considerably augmented by the relative position of
3£ equivalent to " the." In the former, it "^jf 1=F " tne
saying," is opposed to 5£ /^ " the man ;" in the latter
3£ fjjr " the office," to ^ J^ " the government." 3$2
is also used for he, his, she, hers, it, its. Gender, num-
ber, and inflections being alike unknown to Chinese words,
the sexes, plurality of persons or things, are distinguished
by the addition of some separate character, expressive of
male, or female, or by some numeral. There is a class
of characters designated numerals commonly prefixed to
different substantives, in the colloquial medium that may
be thought to resemble the indefinite article in English.
Ko ^g is a very common one, and may be used with
numerous characters of different significations, although
properly each noun ought to have its own numeral pre-
fixed ; as — - yJ5 ^ " one volume book;" — ^ ffffc y**
ckik chuen, a ship ; — * 4g| h, yih kojin, a man. Here
2jC K$L 4@ are numerals, merely used for the sake of
explicitness in conversation, or in the style of writing
most nearly approaching thereto; but not necessarily
required in composition.

These direct examples of the nature and power of the
language must suffice, as opportunities of incidental
illustration will occur during the discussion of Chinese
theories and doctrines. But having said so much on the
written symbols, which are not necessarily connected
with any phonetic system, it behoves me now to state
more particularly the characteristics of the oral medium.
It has been already shown that each character is mono-

54 MODES OF INTONATION.

syllabic, and that the same sound is attached to many
different forms and ideas. To countervail, in some degree,
this defect of their oral system, the Chinese have adopted
a method of intonation which consists in appropriating a
peculiar tone of voice to a specific word, to alter its signi-
fication. There are four tones 3p J^ "^ ^v — ^ e ******
the ascending, the departing, the entering, generally called
even and side tones, and subdivided by some scholars into
upper and lower ascending, upper and lower even, upper
and lower departing, upper and lower entering tones ; but,
excepting the ping-shing, these minute distinctions are
not carried out, in the general language of China, with
such precision as in some local dialects, of which the
Fuh-keen and Canton may be cited as specimens. It
may appear singular that the well-educated Mandarin
should not discriminate sounds so exquisitely as the un-
tutored inhabitant of the province; but the apparent
difficulty admits of an easy solution, when it is consi-
dered that variety of intonation was originated not to
promote the pleasures of harmony, but to increase the
facilities of oral intercourse, which, amidst so many sylla-
bles of the same sound, must needs be confused and
uncertain to a person unacquainted with the symbols:
for example, the word teen means heaven, field, fear, to
plough, according to the tone of voice in which it is
uttered ; but if the written form of each idea — ^ heaven,
JJJ a field, tf^fear, Y|fl to plough — be present to the
mind, all is plain, even though the proper tone be neg-
lected. Now, where a person cannot read, it is of the
utmost importance for him to learn to discriminate and
express teen, or any other word, so as to convey the
different ideas of which the varied intonation renders it

MARKS FOB DISTINGUISHING TONB8. 56

susceptible. It is the duty of every native teacher to
instruct his pupils in the proper tones of each character
when they begin to read ; the progress of whom he faci-
litates by affixing to it the following marks, or accents,
indicative of the tone, o a - — u , as exemplified in
the written symbols above; but these oral distinctions
necessarily require the living voice to render them in-
telligible, except the last o , which may be expressed by
tee, with the accent on the right side of the character,
thus £§£ which, although the sound of n is not heard,
the Chinese classify with teen : hence all words ending in
an, ang, en, euen, in, ing, un, ung, which are characterized
by the four tones, have their corresponding entering tones,
which we should express by a e i A 5 uh, annexed; as
wan wa, then she, tsin tsih, leuen leo, ckung chuh. The
only additional variety of sounds consists in an aspirate
between the consonants k p t ts and the following vowel,
as k'e p'e fe uttered with a forcible breathing, to distin-
guish it from he pe te, similar distinctions subsisting
between all words having a vowel after either of these
consonants, as k'ung and hung, p'ing and ping, t'an and
tan, Keen and keen. K is often confounded with tch, in
the northern parts of the empire. All the different words
and tones of the Chinese language, by which I mean
the names of the symbols, how numerous soever they
may be — and they have been computed at 40,000 — do
not amount to more than 1,320 in the general language
of the country, even including the division of the ping
iking. According to Dr. Morrison's arrangement of the
sounds, in Roman letters, the number of syllables is 41 1 :
of these, 108 are of the jihshing, and terminate in a
thort vowel or the letter h ; if, therefore, we subtract this

56 SOUNDS CREATED BY THE TONES.

number from 411, and multiply the remainder, 303, by
four, we shall have 1,212; to which must be added the
108, to give the true result of the number of distinct
tones applicable to all the symbols of thought in the
Chinese language ; the only additional variety of sound
consisting in the aspirated words, which are not many,
and the substitution of a different tone to indicate that
the word is a verb. The system of intonation is of
comparatively modern invention. It was devised to give
greater variety and precision to the oral language, which
accounts for its cultivation and extension among children
of the rural districts, who acquire it with remarkable
accuracy, without knowing the symbols, from, it is pre-
sumed, early care in disciplining the ear to nice and (to
foreigners) almost imperceptible differences of sound, on
which depends to so great a degree the correct apprehen-
sion and discrimination of ideas. But, after all, with
whatever success the tones are cultivated, it will be evi-
dent to the European scholar that the oral medium of
the Chinese can never pretend to oratorical power in any
degree equal to that of the languages of Greece and
Rome, although they themselves speak of the falling
flowers of eloquence, as sometimes characteristic of their
native oratory. The short, abrupt sounds, intermingled
with aspirates and harsh cadences, produce a monoto-
nous and unpleasing effect on the ear; while the per-
petual recurrence of the same monosyllables renders it
necessary, for the sake of effect, to use many more words
in speaking than the number of characters which even a
perspicuous style of writing requires. To draw still more
accurately the distinction between the powers and pro-
perties of the written and oral mediums of China, it will

SPEAKING AND WRITING COMPARED. 57

be necessary to adduce a few examples peculiar to each,
which will also illustrate the difference generally between
a symbolic and an alphabetic tongue. Mankind is ex-
pressed in writing by ft*" A^ world men, in speaking by
Z?T R3 _t |5j A. world within upon 8 men. The ques-
tion, where are you going to? is sufficiently expressed,
when written, by the phrase 'fpj j^ j^jj -^ what place
and go ? but to be understood in speaking would require
both more numerous and more familiar characters, as

W iIU nP I*? ^3E ^ y * to wnat place proceed go ?
To convey the idea, It is now many years since I saw him,
jj^JQ Tjf yj~ ^ -ibf numerous years not yet see him,
would be abundantly explicit in writing; while in con-
versation it would be desirable to say, jjtjl fa llf 5^

yfik r=l m ^B rtt 9°°^ man V !/ ea ™ I n °t have met
with him. For excessively good, ;^5 ffi- would suffice,

if written ; while the same idea is expressed in the spoken
idiom by ~J Jf ^ £|| $* ffi perfectly unattainable
this kind good. It is evident, from these and other spe-
cimens previously adduced, that were it not for the sym-
bolic nature of Chinese, which excludes an alphabet, and
necessarily requires each character to stand alone, alike
detached from the preceding and the following one in
visible form, the oral language would long ere this have
become polysyllabic. In its present state, where two or
three syllables falling on the ear, and producing no other
impression on the mind than a single symbol would
convey to the eye, the words, according to European
distinctions, would be called dissyllabic or trisyllabic.

It is probably in a similar way, by the union of several
monosyllables, each expressive of a distinct idea, that the
very long words which are found in some ancient and

58 CHINESE SOUNDS COMPARED WITH SANSCRIT.

modern languages originally occurred. It is remarked
by a Sanscrit scholar,* on the comparative identity of the
Chinese with the Sanscrit — " I believe it is admitted, by
the learned, that a similar structure in alphabets is one
test of the derivation of one language from another ; and
if so, the Chinese language is evidently derived from the
Sanscrit ; for whilst it has borrowed its arrangement from
the Sanscrit, it has dispensed with some of the letters."
A comparative table is then given of the Sanscrit alpha-
bet and the supposed Chinese alphabet romanized; of
which, though I have studied the Chinese language many
years, I never before heard. It is due to the author of
the Grammar to state that his authority on this point is
the "Calcutta Christian Observer, for September, 1835;"
and it is also due to the Chinese symbols to affirm that
they never had an alphabet, and will never need one ; for
the moment the phonetic system of conveying ideas by
words reducible to certain primary sounds, usually called
an alphabet, comes into general operation in China, its
symbolic language disappears ; just as the Egyptian hiero-
glyphs ceased to be known in Egypt when the Coptic
alphabet gained the ascendancy. The peculiarity of this
error lies in the circumstance of its having originated in
the capital of India, a portion of whose territory is con-
tiguous to China, and consequently favourable to the
acquisition of correct information on the nature of its
language. I see no way of accounting for it, without
imputing inexcusable carelessness to its author, except on
the supposition that he has confounded the Chinese with
the Manshur Tartar, which is an alphabetic language,

* M. W. Woollaston, Esq., Government Sanscrit College, Calcutta, in the
Preface to his Sanscrit Grammar, pp. 4, 5.

IN WHAT RBSPBCTS SIMILAR. 59

spoken by the present Imperial family, and may per-
haps bear some affinity to the Sanscrit. It is, however,
remarkable that some of the names of the Sanscrit let-
ters — such as cha, ta, sa, sha, ya, ma, and (if the A inserted
be merely an aspirate) chha, tha, pha — are exactly the
same in sound as some of the Chinese monosyllables;
that is, the names of its symbols, of which I adduce the
following: ^j cha, to investigate ; -fc ta, great; |Km,
a spear or lance ; 2S ska, to sprinkle water ; "^ ya, a
tooth ; j^ me, a horse ; ^ chha, tea ; ^ tha, or t'a,
he ; -§f pha, or p'a, the appearance of a tuft of hair,
and connected with :£ na (both a Sanscrit and a Chinese
sound), dishevelled hair. Several other symbols, of the
same sounds and of different meanings, might have been
added to these, which, be it remembered, are taken pro-
miscuously from the language in general, to which they
sustain no elementary relation in the slightest degree
analogous to what subsists between an alphabet and the
tongue of which it is the basis.

If the Sanscrit words were monosyllabic in their pri-
mary state, what are called clusters may have been formed
by the connexion of these words in different numbers, to
indicate that all the ideas which they represent were to
be grouped together in one class, distinguished by a line
drawn over the letters of which they are composed, from
the first to the last. According to Mr. Wool las ton, there
are three of these clusters in the following sentence, in-
dicative of the subject, while the attribute and the object
are each expressed by one word : " May he who holds a
discus in his hand (one cluster), going to the mountain
of battle against Kungsa (another cluster), reeling like a
drunken elephant (a third cluster), preserve you:' 1 and

60 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHINESE AND SANSCRIT.

these three clusters constitute the nominative, or subject,
to the sentence, of which preserve is the attribute, and you
the object. Not being a Sanscrit scholar, I cannot ascer-
tain whether each separate idea, of which the clusters are
composed, was originally expressed by a monosyllable.
In another specimen, to exemplify the construction of a
sentence in poetry, as well as the mode of clustering
words, the original is represented in Roman letters, thus :
" Prajanameba bhrityartham satabhayobalim agrahit.
Sahasragun, amutsrashthumadattehi rasan rabih :" and in
this way, from some Chinese terms romanized, the lan-
guage would appear, to Europeans, not only polysyllabic,
but to consist of words of extraordinary length. The
Chinese term for mankind, expressed in Roman letters
joined together, would be " shekeenshangteihjin," only
two letters shorter than the longest of the above quoted
Sanscrit words ; for philosopher, according to European
notions, it would be necessary to use a still longer clus-
ter, "chachateentejinwuhchelechay." The difference be-
tween the two languages is, that the Sanscrit scholar has
elementary sounds, to which these long compounds are
reducible ; whereas a Chinese could proceed no further
than to analyze the separate ideas of which each com-
bination is formed, whether addressed to him viva voce, or
written in his own character; as "philosopher," which
he would render ^ ^^ JJ| \ $J £ £§?% "he
who investigates the principles of heaven, earth, man, and
things." It is not, therefore, at all probable that the
Chinese has been derived from the Sanscrit ; unless it be
admitted, by those who uphold this theory, that one of
the languages has since undergone a radical and total
transformation. The Chinese speak of the language of a

8TLLABIC SPELLING OF THE CHINESE. 61

region named Fan, which is generally supposed to be
in Thibet, as the source of a system of syllabic spelling,
formed by joining the initial sound of one character to
the final of another, to indicate the name of a third ; for
example, to convey the sound of IB* shing, the two
characters iSP she, and £g ting, might be employed;
i. e. sh of the former, and ing of the latter, which toge-
ther make shing ; but from the unaptness of the Chinese,
both in teaching and acquiring pronunciation by this
method, though adopted in Kan g- he's Lexicon, it is evi-
dently not an original part of their language, but a
subsequent adjunct, quite incongruous with its native
principles; the ancient and still prevailing mode being
to represent the sound of a character, supposed to be
unknown, by one that is well known ; for instance, as *3S»
pe, " large and robust," is not in common use, its sound
might be taught by )^ pe, " to compare : n and there-
fore, although the syllabic-spelling system was in all
probability derived from the Sanscrit, which is generally
thought to be meant by the language of Fan, and though
there is an identity of sound between some Sanscrit and
Chinese words, yet the idea of arguing thence for a
corresponding alphabet is not only erroneous, but pre-
posterous. As to the true origin of the Chinese language,
but little is advanced, by native writers, on which any
reliance can be placed. It is said, by the Chinese, that, in
high antiquity, they had a language without a system of
writing. If this be correct, their present graphic mode
of communication was not carried with them when they
immigrated into China ; and it would afford matter for
interesting investigation to the inquisitive philologist, to
know where they obtained their vocables, and which

© oncrv or

of the provincial dialects maw i ■"■ !■! in the empire
approaches the n ea jc s t m ratal afinky to their primary
tongwe : while withal soaae new fight might be thrown
on the origin of their pieamt symbols : far if they woe
really framed by themselves, as they allege, words pre-
viously possessed must, to a considerable extent, hare
been abandoned, and new names invented to each suc-
ceeding series of symbols. But is it at all probable that
they once had an alphabet, which they permitted to mil
into desuetude, and then erected on its rains a mode of
writing distinguished, not by its vocal, bat ideal proper*
ties, to the forms of which they appropriated some of the
names of their old phonetic system ? The ie*e tsc of this
would, indeed, be the natural process, as it is the usual
mode of transition in languages which hare undergone
great changes. An example occurs in the Coptic alphabet,
formed by addin? seven of the original hieroglyphs of
Egypt to the letters of the Greek alphabet : probably
another instance may be found in the Hebrew alphabet ;
since, from the shape of many of its letters, there can be
little doubt they were originally framed on the principles
of the pictorial system, which was afterwards modified
into the present alphabetic form. It would at any rate
appear, from the similarity of the Coptic alphabet to the
Grecian, rather than to the Hebrew, that the ancient
language of Egypt had not been alphabetic during the
time the Hebrews dwelt there; otherwise there would
have been affinities between the two languages, which
evidently do not subsist, and no necessity for a new
alphabet, like the Coptic, which obtains all its similarity
to the Hebrew through the medium of the Greek, whence
it was derived ; a fact which affords the strongest pre-

PERMANENCY OP ITS SYMBOLS. 63

sumptive evidence, that at the time it was formed, the
Egyptian system of writing was hieroglyphic ; unless We
can suppose the existence of two alphabets to one lan-
guage probable, or the necessity of devising an alphabet
when one was already in existence. But this point will
receive further consideration when the comparative pro-
perties of the Chinese and the Egyptian languages are
discussed.

The grand reason, as it should seem, why the Chinese
tongue has not partaken of the changes incident to
language in general, is the steady and unalterable cha-
racter of its symbols ; which has also tended to give that
appearance of uniformity to the political and moral aspect
of the people, which a minute acquaintance with their his-
tory shows to have subsisted amidst numerous and great
political convulsions. If it be said, the general applica-
tion of this argument is opposed by facts, since Egypt —
assuming for the present that her ancient language was
symbolical — is a monument of the insufficiency of an
hieroglyphic language to preserve her in the same state,
it should be remembered that the geographical position
of Egypt, exposed to the incursions of surrounding na-
tions, and especially to the whole force of Grecian and
Roman influence when their military, philosophic, and
scientific glory was in its greatest splendour, is quite
sufficient to constitute a broad line of distinction between
her and China ; which, though the subject of frequent
invasions and distressing internal conflicts, has, while
succumbing under the power of her adversaries, com-
manded their homage to her institutions, customs, and
language, which her conquerors have not only failed to
eradicate or modify, but have even adopted and perpetu-

64 EFFECT OF LANGUAGE ON CHARACTER.

ated with whatever other sentiments and theories they
could ingraft on the native • stock. The Buddhism of
India, with its religious and superstitious rites, the
Mahometanism of Arabia, with her mathematical and
astronomical science, the military prowess of the Tartars,
though successful in subjugating the whole empire to their
dominion, could not subvert one important institution,
change materially the habits and customs of the people,
supersede the use of the native tongue, modify its existing
characteristics, or in anywise diminish the prevalence of
the written symbols by the substitution of their own
language; although since the accession of the present
dynasty, all the honours and emoluments of the empire
have been at its disposal, accompanied with ceaseless
efforts to render Tartar influence supreme. Two reasons,
therefore, may be assigned for such a state of political
existence, after an experiment of three hundred years:
the first is, the innate and rooted aversion to change,
which is at this day strikingly characteristic of the Chi-
nese ; numbers of whom suffered death at the time of the
conquest, because they would not submit to the Tartar
custom of shaving the head, which, after much opposition,
was at length imposed on the whole empire ; the second
reason is to be found in the superior systems of Chinese
polity, both national and social, compared to those of the
Tartars, and the facility with which the existing manners
and institutions of a large empire might be adopted, when
any attempt at their subversion by a mere handful of men
would not only be attended with immense difficulties, but
probably place in jeopardy all previous acquisitions.
Under such circumstances, a statesman endued with sa-
gacity to perceive, on the one hand, the dangers that

ANC1EWT LANGUAGE OP EGYPT. 65

beset him, and on the other, the advantages accruing to
his own followers, from the modifying influence of lite-
rature and civilization, would certainly adopt the alter-
native chosen by the Tartar chieftain, of sacrificing
personal feeling to state policy. But if China had been
overrun by an enemy of superior attainments in science,
like Greece or Rome or England, and assiduous in in-
troducing its own laws and institutions, it is not impos-
sible but tbeir language might have undergone some
modification similar to that of Egypt; albeit no sound
statesman, it is presumed, would hazard an attempt to
change a language diffused in thousands of distinct trea-
tises throughout hundreds of millions of people, enthu-
siastically attached to its unique and beautiful symbols ;
which, by early instruction and constant use, had become
identified with their very existence as a distinct race,
specially favoured of Heaven with a medium of commu-
nication, divine in its origin, felicitous in its daily in-
fluences, and eternally glorious in its happy results ; for
such are the properties with which the Chinese invest
their graphic system.

Although splendid specimens of the ancient hieroglyphs
of Egypt have been preserved during many ages on
pyramids, tombs, and other monuments accessible to
ingenious and learned men, by whom they have been
diligently examined, these venerable inscriptions may still
be considered as involved in profound mystery. Without
undervaluing previous researches in Egyptian literature,
H cannot but be obvious to the careful student of oriental
learning, that no system has yet been framed sufficiently
philosophical in its principles, and coherent in its several
parts, to elucidate the practical use and primary signifi-

p

66 ANCIBKT LANGUAGE OF EGYPT

cation of those symbols. Conjectures hare been framed
on these points, and attempts made to support them on
the grounds of consistency and probability ; but evidently
without success. It was formerly supposed, not without
reason, perhaps, considering how intimately ignorance and
superstition have always been allied, that these signs were
known only to the priesthood, by whom they were invented,
for the purpose of securing sanctity to their profession, and
unlimited power over the mass of the people. Sufficient
importance, however, was not attached to the fact, that a
powerful community, existing in a high state of mental
culture from remote antiquity, would not submit to the
same hierarchical despotism as undisciplined tribes who
had never participated the humanizing influences of po-
litical and moral elevation ; although it must be conceded
that the supposed depositaries of super-human knowledge,
affecting man's future destiny, would necessarily acquire
extensive dominion over his reasoning faculties. But
ideas, apparently more in accordance with the original
design of the symbols, have at length prevailed ; insomuch
that these ancient and curious modes of communicating
thought are now looked upon, not as the exclusive lan-
guage of a privileged class, but as having been the current
medium of written intercourse among almost all the people
at some unknown period of their greatest prosperity. It
would highly gratify every one anxious to explore the
original sources of language, and to investigate the most
ancient mediums of thought, to hold mental intercourse
with the authors of those inscriptions, whose sentiments
have been so long shrouded in impenetrable darkness, the
external symbols of which still exist in a high state of
preservation ; and, as a natural consequence, to analyze

COMPARED WITH THE CHINESE. 67

the principles on which those isolated hieroglyphics were
once digested into a consistent and practicable system.

I must not be understood to presume upon any origin-
ality in the remarks I am about to offer on Egyptian
hieroglyphics and literature; but having ascertained, with
some degree of precision, the origin and character of the
Chinese tongue, my object now is to inquire whether there
be any resemblance between it and the Egyptian ; and if
there be, whether, on comparison of the original forms
and sources of Chinese and Egyptian symbols, new light
may not thereby be reflected on the principles of sym-
bolical language in general ; 'and whether from consider-
ing the origin, process of composition, and metaphorical
use of certain existing hieroglyphics, special relationship
did not originally subsist between these and the symbols
of China.

In prosecuting these inquiries, it will be both instructive
and interesting to trace the similitudes employed by each
country, not only as descriptive of material objects, but
as applied in their moral sense to political institutions,
national superstitions, hereditary customs, prevailing man-
nets and sentiments, domestic habits, and mental dis-
cipline.

The questions then are, what agreement subsists between
the principles on which the two languages are based ? and
are there any general characteristics of similitude suffi-
important to identify these systems of writing, as
ting from kindred sources, framed on one plan, and
subjected to similar laws of application ? To these in-
quiries, I should decidedly reply in the affirmative ; be-
cause, from the testimony of Horapollo, several of whose
statements are confirmed by existing monumental inscrip-

f2

68 EGYPTIAN 8Y8TEM8 OF CHAMPOLLION

tions, the Egyptian symbols were designed to portray to
the eye some striking sentiment, between which and its
hieroglyphic representative there was a natural or con-
ventional union, without reference to any phonetic system
whatever; although arbitrary sounds attached to such
ideographic signs would necessarily be employed in some
way to indicate foreign words and proper names, agree-
ably to the practice of the Chinese.

Among the European literati distinguished for their
cultivation of this branch of philology, Dr. Thomas
Young, an English physician, and Mons. Champollion, a
French gentleman, have the pre-eminence. Without en-
tering into detail, 1 may be allowed to give a general out-
line of their respective systems ; from both which, facts
stated by original writers on the subject have led me to
dissent. Champollion, supposing that he rightly under-
stood the Chinese system, would deny any identity be-
tween it and the Egyptian; although a comparison of the
864 signs, furnished and classified by himself, for the
purpose of illustrating the Egyptian language, with the
214 Chinese symbols, or heads of classes, which I have
explained above, appears to me not only to indicate points
of striking resemblance, but to furnish evidence of
mutual affinity in the origin of those two ancient tongues.
The classification by Champollion to which I allude, is as
follows: —

1. Heavenly bodies ; sun, moon, stars, firmament, &c.

2. The human species under various circumstances of
sex, age, rank, and every position of which the body is
susceptible in motion or at rest.

3. Members of the human body.

AND YOUNG. 69

4. Four-footed wild beasts, including the lion, panther,
hippopotamus, rhinoceros, hare, antelope, monkey, &c.

5. Domestic quadrupeds, consisting of the ox, cow, calf,
ram, pig, camel, &c.

6. Members of animal bodies.

7. Birds and parts of their bodies; among which we
observe more frequently the quail, eagle, vulture, night-
raven, swallow, lapwing, goose, stork, many species of
water-fowl, and wild fowl.

8. Fishes which live in the Nile.

9. Reptiles, and parts of their bodies, including the
frog, lizard, crocodile, asp, serpent, viper, adder.

10. Insects.
1. Vegetables, plants, flowers, fruits.

12. Buildings, and edifices.

13. Household goods, and works of art.
4. Coverings for the feet, armour, head dresses, scep-
tres, ensigns, ornaments.

15. Tools, and utensils of different kinds.

6. Vases, cups, &c.

7. Geometrical figures.
18. Fantastic shapes ; such as the human body united

to heads of divers animals, to serpents, vessels, mountains,
or the legs of a man ; birds and reptiles to the human
head, and quadrupeds to the heads of birds.

A comparison of these hieroglyphics with the recog-
nized roots of the Chinese tongue and numerous other
symbols which may be considered in the light of pri-
mitives, not only presents striking resemblances in detail,
but shows what is infinitely more important in this ques-
tion, that both systems have been constructed on the

70 POINTS OF COINCIDENCE BETWEEN

same general principles; and that the apparent origin
and design of Egyptian hieroglyphics have been consen-
taneous with the sources and objects of the Chinese
symbols. The following subjects embrace points of mu-
tual coincidence: — Heaven, with its phenomena; the
human frame, and its different members, in varied po-
sitions; animals, wild and domestic; parts of animal
bodies ; birds, fishes, reptiles, insects, vegetables, plants,
flowers, and fruits ; buildings, furniture, works of art,
armour, ornaments, tools, utensils, instruments of agri-
culture and of music, vases, cups. But while strong
affinity in general is apparent, differences exist, which
mark the Egyptian system as the more simple. The
Chinese, including both concrete and abstract terms with
what grammarians of alphabetic languages would call
verbs, indicates considerable philosophic judgment in
classifying mental operations, and great practical wisdom
in the significant symbols by which they are represented.
In illustration of this remark, I would direct the reader
to the latter part of the previous arrangement of the
Chinese radicals, which are, however, incidental devia-
tions in the carrying out of the systems that do not affect
the grand principles. The language of the Chinese is
intimately blended with the philosophical systems on
which they attempt to account for the origin of the uni-
verse; and hence it is important, in the elucidation of
isolated symbols, to ascertain, if possible, the exact nature
of such metaphysical and moral theories. Now do not
the Egyptian hieroglyphics require a very similar process
of illustration ? Is it probable that the whole mystery of
so complicated a medium of communication could ever be
unravelled by the mere phonetic coincidence supposed to

THB CHINESE AND EGYPTIAN ROOTS. 71

subsist between five or six of its symbols and a proper
name in another language? for it may be confidently
asserted, that not any of the discoveries, predicted by the
inventors of this theory, have yet crowned their efforts.
Bat what, it may be asked, is the naturf of the evidence
adduced to favour the phonetic system ? The whole of
the results on which the credit of the theory is staked,
are these : — that in consequence of a certain mutilated in-
scription found on a block of black basalt at Rosetta, the
word Ptolemaeus is supposed to be indicated by the
Egyptian hieroglyphics next in order to the Greek, in
honour of Ptolemy Epiphanes ; that these letters are of
three kinds — the hieroglyphic, or sacred letters ; the en-
chorial, or letters of the country ; and the Grecian : and
that the recurrence in this name of certain Egyptian signs
of a particular form and order sufficiently proves the
characters engraven on the ancient monuments of Egypt
to have been alphabetic signs ; so that a conclusion of the
utmost magnitude is drawn from premises not well estab-
lished by primary evidence, and destitute of all concurring
collateral testimony. But what at once throws suspicion
on the soundness of this theory, is avowed disagreement
between its chief advocates. M. Champollion and Dr.
Young, limited as their subject is, differ both on the inter-
pretation of the symbols, and the nature of their elemen-
tary properties ; the former of whom considers them as
indicative of simple sounds like our own letters ; the
latter as bearing the complex character of words and
letters. Champollion says, " I attempt to demonstrate,
first, that my hieroglyphic alphabet is applicable to royal
hieroglyphic inscriptions of all ages ; secondly, that the

72 mpfemst rmmomMMs or m. cbakpoluos

discor cry of the phonetic alphabet of hieroglyphics is the
true key to the whole hieroglyphic system ; thirdly, that
the ancient Egyptians employed it in all ages to re p re se nt
alphabetically the sounds of the words of their spoken
language; fourthly, that all the hiero glyp hic inscriptions
are for the most part composed of signs purely alphabetic,
and soch as I hare determined them ; fifthly, I will seek
to understand the nature of the different kinds of cha-
racters employed simultaneously in the hieroglyphic texts;
sixthly, I will attempt to deduce from all these propo-
sitions once proved, the general theory of an hieroglyphic
system, supported by numerous applications : this theory
will be altogether new, and I certainly dare to affirm it,
since it will result from facts. It will give us access to
the understanding of the subject and its contents, often
the whole mass of a sufficiently large number of hiero-
glyphic inscriptions ; and by successive labours which it
will henceforth render practicable, conceived nevertheless
and directed according to its own principles, it will soon
give us a full and complete acquaintance with all hiero-
glyphic writings."

The difference between the two theories is thus stated
by Champollion : — " According to Dr. Young, the Egyp-
tians would have had a sort of mixed ideographico-syllabic
alphabet, almost like the Chinese, who transcribe foreign
words into their language ;* but according to my system
the Egyptians transfer foreign proper names to their own
language by a method entirely alphabetical, similar to

* The author ought to have said, who represent the words of foreign lan-
guages as closely as possible by the monosyllabic sounds attached to their own
symbols.

AND OR. YOUNG. 73

that of the Hebrews, Phoenicians, and their neighbours
the Arabs." Again,* " In concluding this long discussion,
by what embraces the general nature of the Egyptian
phonetic system, it is manifest, as I think, that Dr. Young,
in attempting to analyze only two proper names, thought,
and wished to prove, that the ancient Egyptians tran-
scribed foreign proper names by employing characters
which, although ideographic in their nature, would ex-
press on these occasions alone, syllables, dissyllables, and
simple letters."

Now with all deference to our author, this is very nearly
what I conceive to have been the method of using the
hieroglyphics of Egypt; and it is remarkable that Dr.
Young, not knowing the Chinese language, should have
adopted, for the elucidation of Egyptian signs, a theory
in some respects congenial to its present practice, while,
without perceiving his inconsistency, he still clung to
another directly opposed to it.+ "No effort,' ' he says,
" however determined or persevering, had (i. e. prior to
his first efforts) been able to discover any alphabet which
could fairly be said to render the inscriptions in general
at all like what was required to make its language intelli-
gible Egyptian, although most of the proper names seemed
to exhibit a tolerable agreement with the forms of letters
indicated by Mr. Akerblad, — a coincidence, indeed, which
might be found in Chinese, or in any other character not
alphabetical, if they employed words of the simplest
sounds for writing compound proper names.'*

But let us hear what objections the ingenious French-
man interposes. He says, " On my part, I am justified

• Ch. i. p. 36. t P»ge 18, Young.

74 ILLUSTRATIONS OF

in thinking that I have demonstrated the phonetic system
of the Egyptians to be infinitely more simple ; and that
this people have transcribed proper names and foreign
words by means of a regular alphabet of which each ele-
ment is equivalent to a simple vowel or consonant. ' The
square block □ and the semi-circle jCl (says Dr. Young)
answer invariably in all the manuscripts to characters
which resemble P and T ; ' while I have never seen in
any of the numerous manuscripts hieratiqttes, which I have
studied, that it has been expressed by a character resemb-
ling the P of M. Akerblad : its invariable form is that
which is engraved on my first plate. No. 4, ]l( made, as
I have also found, like the first symbol in the name of
Ptolemy, in many popular papyri. I have maintained
that the P of the hieroglyphic name of Cleopatra, was
also expressed by the very same character — the square H
and that the segment of the sphere was the consonant T ;
first, because in all the hieroglyphical passages the femi-
nine article of the Egyptian language T is rendered by
this figure ; and, secondly, because it expresses the con-
sonant T, in a multitude of Greek or Roman names, re-
presented by hieroglyphics. 'The following character/
continues Dr. Young, 'which appears to be a kind of
knot, is not essentially necessary, being often omitted in
the sacred character, and always in the enchorial.' I am
ignorant on what grounds the learned Englishman felt
himself justified in stating, that this third sign of the
hieroglyphical name of Ptolemy was not essentially neces-
sary, and why he has excused himself from investigating
its power ; however, I can testify, that I never found it
omitted but once* in the numerous columns of Ptolemy,

* Inscrip.de Rosette, texte hieroglyphique, ligne 14,et par unoublidugraveur.

EGYPTIAN SYMBOLS. 75

drawn on the Egyptian monuments ; only this character
is sometimes transposed and put after the lion ; and the
corresponding popular character (plate 1, No. 4) /^ so
far from being always omitted, is, on the contrary, always
expressed; but the learned Englishman believed that this
character formed part of the symbol which precedes it.
In my system the hieroglyphic in form of a knot, which
Dr. Young considers useless, and which appears to me to
be a fruit or a flower with its stalk bending, has been, on
the contrary, recognized as the symbol of the vowel O ;
since it is in effect also the fourth sign of the hieroglyphic
name of Cleopatra.

" * The Lion/ says Mr. Young, * corresponds to Lo of
Akerblad, a lion being always expressed by a like cha-
racter in the manuscripts, or an oblique line crossed, re-
presenting the body, and a perpendicular line the tail ;
this was, probably, read not Lo, but OLE/ It is evi-
dent that the learned Englishman, having only proceeded
to the fourth sign of the hieroglyphic name of Ptolemy,
was already obliged to read the name of which the two
first elements appeared to him alphabetical P and T,
and (suppressing the third sign without reason) supposing
that the fourth, the lion, is no more an alphabetic sign
like the two first, but a dissyllabic character, attributing
to it the power OLE. Such a use of symbols so dif-
ferent in their nature would, in my opinion, be very
surprising.

" For my part, observing that the lion -j^ the third
sign of the hieroglyphic name of Ptolemy, was like the
second sign of the hieroglyphic name of Cleopatra, I
understood this symbol to be simply the sign of the con-
sonant L."

NATIVE AND FOREIGN WRITERS

Again : Champollion says, " I have assigned to these
two feathers M the power of the Greek ij, because I con-
sidered the two feathers, or rather leaves, as a complex
character, formed of the reduplication of the simple leaf,
which is a short vowel. The two feathers correspond
with sufficient regularity, indeed, in the hieroglyphic
names, to two Greek diphthongs AI, EI, or to double
vowels AI, 10, and in the first relation this hieroglypbic
group lias the greater analogy frith the epsilon redoubled,
E E, on the more ancient Greek inscriptions. The two
feathers answer also sometimes to the iota of some Greek
or Roman names; a new motive for transcribing this
group, apart from its nature, by the tj of the Greeks, to
which the ancient pronunciation approaches as certainly
as that of our T."

"The curved stroke," continues Dr. Young, "which
probably signifies great, was read osck or os. It remains
for me to show that the idea of great is never expressed
in the hieroglyphic text of Rosetta by this curved line,
but rather by a swallow placed on the character mouth,
g^ - grouped, according to Dr. Young, to signify diadem."

As my object is not to furnish a history of the controversy
between Dr. Young and M. Champollion, but to develop
the principles of a system totally distinct and independent,
I have perhaps quoted sufficient to mark the properties
of their respective theories. I shall uow proceed to adduce
reasons for thinking that the Egyptian hieroglyphics
were not designed to be phonetic, but symbolical; that is,
that they originally constituted a series of figures, repre-
senting living and tangible objects, and thereby became a
medium through which ideas, abstract or concrete, simple
<u complex, arc conveyed to the mind irrespective of sound.

ON EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHS. 77

The earliest existing treatises of the language do not ex-
tend higher than the fifth century before Christ ; while
those now quoted as authorities are to be found, princi-
pally, among the Greek writers of a later date, of whom
the chief are Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Diodorus Siculus,
Strabo, Plutarch, Philostratus, and Porphyry. Manetho,
an Egyptian priest, who, it is said, wrote a history of his
native country, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, which
is now lost, had inserted some remarks in it on the Egyp-
tian hieroglyphics. Chaeremon, another Egyptian his-
torian, wrote on the same subject. Horapollo, whose aera
is undetermined by the learned, is supposed to have been
an Egyptian by birth, who wrote in his native tongue the
Hieroglyphica, whence it was translated into Greek. This
work contains a great deal of curious and interesting
matter on the origin of the Egyptian symbols, but differs
from itself, in the estimation of some critics,* so much as
to have induced the opinion that it is not all genuine.
Sufficient internal evidence, however, remains, especially
when its theories are compared with the hieroglyphics on
the ancient monuments of Egypt, to show that a great
part of it is the production of a native, well versed in the
system of writing originally prevalent among his country*
men. Moreover, his account of the origin and formation
of the hieroglyphics, harmonizes so clearly with certain
treatises on the Chinese symbols, by learned natives,
whose system is known to be both natural and practical,
that this simple circumstance of undesigned coincidence
pleads most powerfully for the genuineness of a large
portion of the Hieroglyphica. It is conceded by Cham-
pollion, that any attempt to deny the ideographic nature

* Fabriciiu, for example.

78

CHINESE MODE OP TRA

of the Egyptian characters is preposterous ; for he says,
" It will not be permitted at this day to any one to allege,
as persons have formerly dared to do, that the hiero-
glyphics served only for the purpose of ornamenting the
edifices on which they are engraven, and that they were
not invented with a view to portray ideas."* It is sur-
prising with this admission that there should still be, in
his theory, a tenacious adherence to the alphabetic sys-
tem, to which it is not consentaneous. The misconcep-
tion of the learned writer on this point, if I may presume
so far, seems to have sprung from a previous conviction,
that proper names could not be transferred without an
alphabet ; and hence, instead of connecting together the
group of hieroglyphs on the Rosetta stone as words —
the only proper method of analyzing foreign names in a
symbolical tongue — the author endeavoured to accommo-
date each sign to an elementary class of sounds totally
unknown to the language. The very circumstance of the
names of these signs being lost, affords presumptive
evidence that they were never intended to answer the
purpose of an alphabet; and this opinion may be satis-
factorily elucidated from analogous properties of the
Chinese tongue.

If it be granted that the characters included wilhin the
lines are the representatives of a foreign name, I would
ask, why each of those forms may not indicate a word as
well as a letter. The Chinese inclose their characters in
a similar way to designate a country ; for example,
England would be spelled by the characters j^f
(ying-keik'le) inclosed in a parallelogram ; or they '
put a [3 mouth, at the side of each symbol composing

• Page 230.

ey would
>m posing

FOREIGN NAMES. 79

the name thus : ^Jp & jHo to indicate that the cha-
racters so distinguished were intended only for sound ;
implying also, as exceptions prove the rule, that those
destitute of such mark were symbols of ideas. Proper
names of individuals are discriminated from those of
places, by a line drawn on one side of the characters, as
yfr Jo && han stands for John, with the Chinese, who,
it will be remembered, always write in columns from the
top of the page to the bottom, beginning on the right
hand. This coincidence between Egypt and China in
designating a proper name, seems to have been suggested
by the unique peculiarities of a symbolical tongue. Two
or three examples may further elucidate this point. It is
a rule with the Chinese, in choosing names, to select cha-
racters of a felicitous meaning, whether they are for private
individuals or for persons in public stations about to as-
sume some new political or literary character. When an
emperor ascends the throne, he selects an imperial title,
declaratory of the leading sentiments of his mind, and
the characteristic of his future reign ; as £& 4lf- Reason's
Olory y the designation of the present sovereign of China,
intimates that during his government the principles of
reason and rectitude should be pre-eminently illustrious.
Successful warriors are honoured with titles descriptive of
their exploits, and not as among Europeans, to constitute
mere local reminiscences; hence a celebrated military leader
was styled by Kang-he ^p gg IJT « King subjugator
of the west ;" and a naval commander who captured a
noted pirate in the same reign, " Pacificator of the seas."
Disrespect to persons and nations is shown by opprobrious
epithets, expressive of some supposed moral or physical
defect. The Emperor Yung-ching of the last century,

-

80 PROPER NAMES OFCODN

having committed one of his brothers to solitary confine
ment for alleged offences, deprived him of his own name,
and substituted for it the ludicrous appellation ?g H3
P& "shut up to study darkness." The Cochin Chinese
were anciently designated ^ pj- " folded toes," imply-
ing that their toes were wrapped over each other in a
singular manner. The Dutch being remarkable amongst
the Chinese chiefly for their "red hair," — although
"sunken eyes," and "long noses" were also imputed as
national characteristics — were called ff[ -^ ^ " tlie
red-haired nation." This contemptuous epithet was after-
wards applied to England, but is now through British
efforts at Canton, yielding to the term 65 g? 4;|J E|j
" English nation ;" whence we learn that in titles, whether
of honour or contempt, the communication of sentiment is
the great point on which they turn, and that the system
of spelling foreign names by monosyllabic sounds of the
symbols, though less convenient than the alphabetic, an-
swers every useful purpose. Now if the Egyptians, as
is most probable, spelled their proper names in the same
way as the Chinese, it would be easy to account both for
the inclosure of certain symbols on the Roselta stone, and
the total oblivion of all names once attached to Egyptian
hieroglyphics; while insuperable difficulties, as experiancfl
has proved, oppose their solution on the alphabetic system.
If it unquestionably proved that these symbols represent
the name of Ptolemy, I should still demur to the conclu-
sion, that each symbol is, therefore, equivalent to the
single Greek letters, of which irroAt/jcuoc is composed ;
because the same mode of reasoning, which tacts .k'nien-
tmt* to be fallacious, might with equal plausibility bo
applied to the Chinese. For transferring the name of

AND PERSONS IN CHINESE.

81

Ptolemy to that tongue, Pe-to-le-mae-sze, are the sounds
which would be required, but they might be represented by
a variety of symbols ; take the following as a specimen :

Now suppose the Chinese language were unknown like
the Egyptian, and that these characters were a monu-
mental inscription of the name of the Grecian King, from
which it appeared probable their sounds might be obtained
by comparing them with the Grecian letters, would not a
process take place similar to that of Dr. Young or M.
Champollion, adopting for a moment their principles of
interpretation ? It might be said the first sign / [J/ repre-
sents the letter P (p), the next fy T (-£l), the third
/££ L (according to Dr. Young, ole), the fourth |§|
M, and the fifth -J^ S, understanding that the requisite
Towels should be supplied, on the principle adopted by
many learned men in reading Hebrew and other orien-
tal languages. No objection a priori could be alleged
against this method of spelling that is not equally applica-
ble to the Egyptian signs : and yet the theory involved in
it is in direct opposition to fact ; because each symbol
denotes an idea to which a monosyllabic name is attached,
common indeed to characters of other forms and significa-
tion, but not the representative of an elementary sound ;
and therefore has no more claim to an alphabetic property
than any other character in the language.

Now this is precisely what I apprehend to have been
the case with the Egyptian hieroglyphics ; but whether
their names were monosyllabic, like the Chinese symbols
in their present state, or polysyllabic, as those would have
been to a great extent if each composite form had retained
the sound of its single component parts, remains to be

G

82 SPECIMENS OF EGYPTIAN

proved. If a case might be formed from a few instances
of isolated Egyptian words, I should plead, that simple
graphic representations of material objects were monosyl-
labic like the Chinese; but that when two or more of them
became one hieroglyph, the sound of each in its original
state was preserved in the composite character, the name
of which would consequently, in contradistinction from the
Chinese practice in such cases, be polysyllabic. An elucid-
ation of this matter may be drawn from each language.

First, with regard to the usage of the Chinese; the
accompanying character fa is a symbol of silk, named
sze, and is one of the radicals of the language ; it is there-
fore in its simplest form. The next I adduce is more
complex, as the reader will perceive, ^g ; having in addi-
tion to 4^ sze, two other symbols: these are in their
isolated state teen |J} a field, and ^j^ sin, the heart;
but instead of this compound symbol taking the name of
each part for its own — sze-teen-sin — it is called simply
sze, after its radical, and denotes a species of cloth used in
mourning. Another example is supplied by the union of
two of the same characters (teen and sin), in a distinct
form, thus IB (" to think, to meditate and reflect"),
whose name is sze, though destitute of this sound in either
of its components, but still monosyllabic. These in-
stances, as the principle is of universal application, will
suffice to recall the fact we have more fully illustrated
elsewhere, that however complicated a Chinese symbol
may be, its name is purely monosyllabic.

The practice of the Egyptians would seem to have been
of the opposite character, according to Horapollo's com-
position of the word baietk, " a hawk," compounded of
bai, "life," and etk, "heart," the sense of which is "life

AlfD CHINBSB COMPOSITION. 83

and heart," perhaps "life in the heart;' 9 because the
Egyptians considered the heart as the " inclosure of life/ 9
of which the hawk was the consecrated emblem on ac-
count of its drinking blood instead of water, and thereby
showing its sympathy with the essence or aliment of life.
It would, therefore, seem, that as the names of the two
ideas which this hieroglyph represented were both pre*
served in its complex form, so in proportion to the number
of simple ideas of which any sign was composed would
be the number of syllables constituting its name ; that is,
there would be a monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, of
polysyllable, accordingly as one, two, three, or more ideas
were involved in the sign. This might have been the case
the Chinese, who have a symbol composed of pre*
the same elementary ideas as the Egyptian baieth,

name ty> £-* mn< * 3tl which are accurately rendered by
i*Xrt and Kapha, the two Greek words used by Hora polio's
translator for bat and eth ; but, then, the name of this
complex symbol ^£ meaning nature, innate properties,
natural constitution, ability, temper, disposition, is not «*-
smng, which it would be if formed according to the Egyp-
tian method, but sing.

If the principle of combining sounds with ideas were as
common in the Egyptian as the contrary one is in Chinese,
it would aflbrd matter for conjecture, how far the simplest
hieroglyphical forms only were used to represent foreign
names. Thai there are many monosyllables is undeniable ;
but whether they are sufficiently numerous to justify the
conclusion that each of the original forms of the written
language is represented by a sound of but one syllable
may be difficult to prove. Another question might be
raised on the point, whether these phonetic signs bai

o 2

N4

CHINESE AND EGYPTIAN

and eth, had each a graphic figure to correspond to it,
similar to J\ and ^Jr of the Chinese; since life in man
is also represented by a star, and the hawk is symbolical
of a variety of abstract ideas, according to the postures it
assumes : thus, being elevated in the air towards the cast,
and expanding its wings, signifies the winds, as though
the winds had wings ; rising perpendicularly towards
heaven, denotes sublimity; descending downwards in
straight line, humiliation, no other bird being able to
ascend or descend, except in an oblique direction; turned
ou its back in the air with its claws upwards, in the
attitude of fighting, denotes victory and pre-tmintnct
which it obtains over all other creatures. It ia the
symbol of blood, because it feeds on blood; of the sun,
because it is long-lived, and because it alone can look with
intensity on his rays; whence the sun, as the lord of
vision, was sometimes painted in the form of a hawk.
The herb used by physicians for healing the eyes, was
named from the hawk, which was held in so much
honour by the Egyptians, that he who killed it, whether
by accident or design, was capitally punished. Moreover,
according to Herodotus, hawks were at death interred
with honours in a city' which he calls Bovroc. Some
of the properties here mentioned seem applicable to the
eagle, as that of looking intensely at the sun. The Chinese
word HS for hawk, is also applied to the eagle, some-
times with the word "divine" prefixed Sfe PS; but
different uames are assigned to different species ; one is
called Yfj I', 1 ' lne " tufted hawk," in allusion to the
feathers on its neck ; another, the fierce pigeon ; and a
third, ilit- imperial hawk, or falcon; and though the
• Hook II. di. lxtii.

SENTIMENTS COMPARED. 85

Chinese do not carry their prejudices so far as the Egyp-
tians, they also have a superstitious impression that
medical benefit is to be derived from the feathers of its
tail, with which they rub children in the small-pox,
as a curative charm.

The Chinese, like the Egyptians, believe that the heart
is the seat of existence — a sentiment which they ex-
press by jj\ ^ jjr ^ yfe *Hf " tne neart * 8 tne foun-
tain of life." In all probability, the moral axiom of
Solomon has arisen from the prevalence of a similar
physical theory among the Hebrews, — " Out of the heart
are the issues of life;" who, in another place, with the same
allusion, and describing the heart during the process of
death, speaks of it as the "pitcher broken at the fountain."
Remembering, then, that the definition of the Egyptian
word for hawk is " heart and life," and that there is a
symbol formed of two elements of just the same meaning
in Chinese, whose sentiments coincide with theirs on the
functions of this organ, moreover that many meanings
are attached to one Egyptian hieroglyphic, which is also
the case with one Chinese symbol, we cannot but re-
gard the similitude between Chinese and Egyptian signs
as more than ordinarily remarkable, and alike tending to
establish the ideographic nature of these forms ; especially
as the sounds bai and eth have no relation to sin and
9omg, while the ideas are the same. But the comparison
of these two symbols has carried us no further than to
the conclusion, that two ideas are united together sig-
nifying precisely the same thing in Egyptian and in
Chinese, without knowing whether the graphic 8 igns of
these ideas are the same or not. If, therefore, other
hieroglyphics shall be found corresponding to the Chinese

86 SYMBOLS ASD MBTAPHOSS

in form, as well as signification, we shall approach still
nearer to oar avowed object of ide ntifyin g and harmon-
izing the general principles of the two languages. To
attempt this identification may appear unwarranted as*
sumption to those who object that the evidence already
submitted in proof of the ideographic nature of the
Chinese is insufficient. This, however, must be left to
the sagacity of the intelKgent reader, who, I think, can
entertain no rational doubt on the subject.

If two nations, widely separated from each other in
locality and intercourse during a series of ages, extending
from remote antiquity to the present era, should embody
in their written medium descriptions of certain natural
objects so far coalescing in external figure as undoubtedly
to represent the same thing, and conveying some thought
to the mind congruous with the general impression pro-
duced by the prototype, then it becomes important to
inquire how nearly these two figures are assimilated in
their origin, and identical in their objects. But to state
the case in a still plainer light. Should symbols of the sun
and moon, drawn exactly alike in China and in Egypt, be
found to represent not only these heavenly bodies them-
selves, but the same figurative properties in the language
of both countries, would there not be reason to infer that
they had one origin ? As pertinent to this subject, I
quote a paragraph from some remarks of Dr. Young.*
" The common astronomical diagram for the sun © seems
to have been adopted by the Latin astrologers, from their
masters in Egypt, since it is not very probable both
should have employed a point in the centre of the circle,
without some communication with each other ; the circle

* In the Bncydopsdia, Supplement, p. 55.

THE SAMS IN CHINA AND EGYPT. 87

alone having been mentioned by some of tbe Greek
authors, who say that it was the symbol of the sun. The
enchorial name of the sun is extremely like that which
corre sp onds in the manuscripts to this hieroglyphic, and
a similar circle, with rays diverging from it, though seldom
exactly in straight lines, is used in the sense of enlight-
ening, or rendering illustrious."

Now if it were improbable that the Latins should use
die same astronomical sign as the Egyptians without
having derived it from them, is it not still more impro-
bable that the Chinese should not only have exactly the
same sign standing in their original forms of writing, but
employ it in a variety of ways similar to its uses among
the Egyptians, and yet, after all, not have borrowed it
from the same source? The ancient Chinese form to
which we allude, is this Q. There is also one with lines
diverging from the circle, corresponding to the Egyptian
form described above ; and although Dr. Young does not
say whether these lines proceed from the circumference or
the centre, I should apprehend the former, from his using
the word circle, like the Chinese figure ^, whose lines,
were they continued, would meet in the centre.

These figures Q \^j (^) ^» are also different modes
of describing the same object with the Chinese, all which
are now superseded by the modern form R. This
symbol of the sun and day, according to native philolo-
gists, is one of the class denominated pictorial ; that is, to
repr e sen t objects. The moon also belongs to the same
class, whose name in Chinese is yue f and in Egyptian iok t
which latter sound, according to the power of the French
alphabet, is very similar to the Chinese name pronounced,
as though written in English, Yoh. It is curious, too,

88 FIGURATIVE USB OF THE SOLAR

that these two symbols 6}) should be united by the
Egyptians to form one hieroglyph — which may be seen
on the Rosetta stone in the British Museum — just the
same as 0^ minff 9 in Chinese, which means " clearness,
splendour, intelligence, to shed light upon, bright, per-
spicuous ;" while, according to Horapollo, the combination
in Egyptian symbolizes eternity, because these heavenly
objects are eternal elements, derived from the idea of
perpetual light, unceasing splendour, indicated by the
unbroken succession of light in the rising of one of these
bodies immediately on the setting of the other : and who
does not perceive that this idea is infinitely more worthy
the dignity of a complicated and refined system of hiero-
glyphics, by which minds are brought into intelligent
contact through the medium of the eye, than Champol-
lion's, which makes the combined symbols of two of the
mightiest powers in the visible universe subservient only
to an elementary sound ?

" Parturiunt montes, nascetur ridiculus mug."

Light, being an essential element of utility and beauty
in our world, is everywhere employed to prefigure moral
excellence and true dignity ; but especially in the East,
where all its depositaries and instruments of action are
of surpassing splendour; hence the Chinese not only
ascribe to it perpetual existence, but seem to invest the
element of light with a sort of omnipresence, created by
the successive agency of those two heavenly bodies which
they identify with its diffusion, as in the well-known
beautiful phrase R ^ J^f ^3 " wherever the sun
and moon give light;" by which they designate every
conceivable spot in the universe. Another application of
these two symbols by the Chinese, is derived merely from

AND LUNAR SYMBOLS. 89

the different relative positions which they sustain to each
other ; so that instead of standing side by side, they are
placed vertically, § the sun above the moon, to indicate
change, alteration ; which is a natural suggestion, from
the one power ruling the day, and the other the night ;
whence the symbol so placed is named yih, and becomes
the index of one of the most important of their meta-
physical systems, designated the " science of changes ;"
which, it is assumed, took place at the origin of the uni-
verse, by the alternation of light, symbolized by the sun,
and of darkness, depicted by the moon placed under him.
But this theory will be explained in its proper place.

Another illustration is afforded by the addition of HH
ming, a vessel, placed under the sun and moon, but made
thus ^£ in the ancient pictorial style of writing ; which
means to take oath, or bind one's self by an open and
explicit declaration before the gods, sipping the blood of
the victim poured out in sacrifice, under the implied wish
that, if the covenant were broken, the violator imprecated
on himself the death inflicted on the animal. Whether
the composition of this symbol included any reference to
the worship of the sun and moon y or the presence of fl£]
ming, merely indicated the open public manner of the
transaction, does not appear. I am inclined, however, to
the opinion, that the Chinese have a very superstitious
veneration for the mere element of light, which, with their
love of abstractions, might readily be converted into a
divinity, whose appropriate visible representative would be
the sun, which is called the sovereign of lights ; and to
which probably the sentence, "the light of Deity illumines
every place," was originally applied. Chinese are taught to
rise in token of reverence, even when a lighted candle is

90

THE IBIS AND OSIRIS OF KGYPT,

brought. The word Tj"7 " lost," placed above "jfc ming,
means " blindness ;" that is, extinguished light. From
these combinations it will plainly appear, how the essential
idea of the symbol can be modified, either by transposing
its parts, or adding a new character ; proving that what
is effected in alphabetical languages by the disposition of
letters, must be produced in Chinese by combinations of
thought; and developing, as I think, the only correct
principles, on which to analyze Egyptian hieroglyphics,
which, like the Chinese, were originally pictorial, if we
may judge from the prevalence of rude forms of animals
and material objects in the surviving inscriptions on an-
cient monuments.

Closely related to the sun and moon are the two prin-
cipal deities of Egypt — Isis and Osiris — a female and male
principle personified, or an imaginary power, to which,
though the comparison may not be complete, 1 cannot but
think the yin and yung of the Chinese bear a very strong
resemblance. Their names are totally different, but the
order of arrangement, consisting of the female taking
precedence of the male, is precisely the same — Isis
corresponding to Yin, and Osiris to Yang. |f^ Yin, in
Chinese, is the female energy in nature which represents
darkness, the inferior part of creation, and one of the
supposed forms into which chaos was divided, from which
organized matter was eventually educed. It is, also, a
designation of the moon, though not the ordinary word
lor that object.

isis is supposed by some writers on Egyptian literature
to be the moon, which was universally worshipped in
Egypt as a goddess, and, as a creative power presiding
over the earth, seemed in conjunction with Osiris to com-

AMD THE YIK AMD YAHG OF CHINA. 91

prebend all nature. Horapollo says, Ieis was a woman,
and a divinity ; also an emblem of the year, and of a star ;
•opposed to be the offspring of Thoth and Rhea ; com-
pared to Ceres, or the earth, the goddess of fertility and of
maternal lore, and analogous to Proserpine, the queen of
the lower regions in Hades, and the wife of Pluto. Yin is
not worshipped by the Chinese, but, as one of the two
principles in nature which originated all things, it pos-
sesses several properties in common with the earth, as the
second power in the universe, of which heaven has the pre-
cedence ; so Isis, as the goddess of agriculture and general
cultivation, seems to bear affinity to the notion of earth
among the Chinese, who regard it as the mother of all
things. Moreover, Yang is the male energy of the
Chinese; first in importance, because the superior in
nature, although, like the Egyptian Osiris, second in
order. It denotes splendour, light, and energy ; and is
also an epithet of the sun. In the Chinese system it may
be considered as coinciding with heaven, much in the
same way as Yin coincides with earth ; hence in different
aspects and relations these two powers may be repre-
sented sometimes by heaven and earth, and sometimes by
the sun and moon; or rather by all these powers united,
notwithstanding the Chinese mundane theory, which de-
signates Yin and Yang as a male and female creator. So
in the Coptic, Osiris, who is denoted hieroglyphically by
an eye and a sceptre, includes the idea of male energy
and activity ^ ; and is sometimes compared to the Nile,
sometimes to the sun; wherefore, whatever may be its
external form, it would seem to intimate the all-important
power in nature.

The Chinese and the Egyptians so far agree in senti-

92

SUTREME POWERS RECOGNIZEE

ment on the First Cause, that both acknowledge two
supreme powers, of different sexes, emblems respectively
of light and darkness, energy and fertility, perfection and
imperfection, order and confusion; but while the Egyp-
tians personify these powers, and worship them as gods,
the Chinese regard them as impersonal exist< -inrs, (be
offspring of unity or a monad, but still entitled to the
venerable distinction of co-creating principles, from which
the three supreme agencies in nature — heaven, earth, and
man — have derived their origin. It is a characteristic in
Chinese philosophy to mystify familiar objects in nature,
which they then reduce to first principles, from which
they form a system of consecutive reasoning, applicable
to every part of creation, and based on an assumed first
cause — an indivisible, indestructible essence, without
figure, form, mode, or personality — exhibiting, in all their
speculations, a love of the process of abstraction, by which
they immateriallze the grossest substances.

It is difficult to ascertain the sentiments of the ancient
Egyptians on the supreme powers in the uuini-c, BDO
much confusion has, no doubt, been created by their
nomenclature being intermingled with the Grecian my-
thology and pantheology. It is probable that while rhry
had not proceeded so far in analytical philosophy, as to
recognize with the Chinese one infinite essence, their gods
having been introduced into Greece, were there remodelled
and designated anew, prior to their restoration again tn
Egypt, under other names and titles. An instance occurs
in a deity who inhabited the constellation of the Great
Bear, irboae Qeeeian appellation was Tvplum, hut his
Egyptian name, according to Plutarch, was Seth, Bebon
or Baby n, and Smy.

IK CHINA AND EGYPT. 93

In pursuing comparisons, however, we must not be
guided by particular coincidences, striking as they may
appear: such, for example, as the constellation of the
Bear, worshipped alike by Chinese and Egyptians, because
all nations, from the earliest period of their existence, have
paid especial attention to it ; but if celestial and natural
phenomena are set apart for some purpose, common only
to the two nations, there is, then, reason to infer a more
than ordinary relation between them, based on some great
and peculiar principles. The Egyptians had what has
been termed a genius of the whole world, symbolized by
t, A, A, t, A, 0,* which seems to have been a sort of chaos,
whose personification was not generally admitted. I am
not aware that the Chinese have any conventional symbol
of a similar nature to this, which I apprehend indicated
the paramount importance of Egyptian influence over the
destinies of the world, if not to assert its absolute control
over every other portion of the globe ; but it is a singular
fact, that the Chinese use expressions, which attribute the
dominion of the world, if not its entire possession, to
themselves ; whilst by designating themselves the middle
country, they assume the same position on the earth with
the ancient Egyptians, who also described Egypt as occu-
pying the central domain of the world, and designated it
by an appellation to that effect.

Plutarch says, the sun, called On, otherwise Re, or
Phre, was represented by a young child rising out of the
lotus, which was also emblematical of the rising of the
Nile, and the return of the sun ; and that this flower had
a sacred character may be confidently assumed, from the
u frequency of its occurrence in the bas-reliefs and paint-

* Encyclopedia Britt. Sup. p. 44.

94 THE LOTt'S SACKED IN CHINA AND EGYPT.

ings in the Egyptian temples, in all representations of
sacrifices, religious ceremonies, and in tombs, and what-
ever is connected with death and another life." Now the
Chinese have a term common to the lotua, and the water-
lily, of which there are two varieties, white and red : it is
lit Hi or ^M Mi 'M : tllfi former character, which is the
principal one, is formed of "plant," "wheel," and " to go
swiftly." This flower is represented in the descriptions of
the metempsychosis by the sect of Full, as effectually
averting punishment from criminals doomed to suffer m
Hades, when interposed by the goddess of mercy between
the criminal and the instrument of punishment, just at
the moment of his apprehended destruction. This illus-
tration occurs only with the sect of Full, which is of Indian
origin, and was established in China during the first cen-
tury of the Christian tera ; still it affords another instance
of the similarity of sentiment between Egypt and China ;
but whether India was the common source to both nations
of the superstitious tenet, or Egypt was the original pa-
rent, is doubtful. There can be little room for doubt,
however, that the flower to which the Chinese ascribed
the virtue of saving offenders in another state, is of the
same species as the Egyptian lotus, which, according to
Herodotus, is a kind of lily, famed for its sacred character;
and that the natural description of the lotus by Herodotus,
and the account of the Chinese lily by natives, agree, in
this, as well as other particulars, that both have seeds.

In the classification of characters according to their
final sound in a Chinese dictionary, entitled, " The Source
of Characters engraven on Bells and Tripods," there are
two ancient forms of (JJ teen, " a field," the one consisting
of a cross, formed of straight lines within a circle and

CHINESE AND EGYPTIAN WATBE-WHBEL. 96

through its centre, thus (J) ; the other of waving lines
crossing each other, thus (J) ; the definitions of which,
under the modern form, are, to plant grain in rows, ar-
ranged in order, a field laid out in plots, a cultivated field,
to plough, to hunt; to the former of these figures the
following sentence, from the Encyclopaedia Britannic*,
applies : " It is remarkable, that the wheel signifying land
had been noticed by the Jesuits as resembling the old
Chinese character for the word field." The Chinese term
for the husbandman's water-wheel, is JJJ ^ ^ j||
" field-person's water-wheel ;" the Egyptian wheel for
raising water is designated tung-chay, ^f j|f " a wheel
with a tube." As the government of China have, from
remote antiquity, encouraged agriculture, and provided for
the irrigation of the soil by diverting rivulets and streams
through means of suitable machinery into artificial chan-
nels prepared for them, it is probable the original word
may have been derived from some rude instrument in early
times used to irrigate rice-fields, which require extraor-
dinary supplies of water to insure their successful culture.
Indeed, proceeding on what we venture to consider an
established position — that ideas in Chinese were, in the
first instance, represented by figures — the original form
of the character for field, must have been so far graphi-
cally descriptive, as either to have represented the object
itself, or some well-known feature of it ; while the Egyp-
tian form of the wheel, we are taught by Dr. Young,
signifies land, and in connection with the square, "splendid
land — characters which seem to be essential parts of the
name of Egypt."

The circumstance of similar numerals in the languages
of different countries, is usually considered presumptive

CHINESE AND EGYPTIAN NI'MEIiAl.s

evidence, if not of one common origin, at least of close
affinity. Form and power are the chief points of compa-
rison between the Chinese and Egyptian numerals ; and
if there be no mutual relation, the coincidence is certainly
very striking ; for the principle involved in the modern
forms of the Chinese numerals, is essentially the same as
that on which the Egyptian mode of enumeration pro-
ceeds, while the original forms of the characters are in
many respects the same as the hieroglyphs. The Chinese
numerals arc: — one; = two; 2E£ three; ptj four ;
35>,; ^ six; fe.MS.J height; ft ,i«; -f-«»;
and for every additional ten, r^ -|- twice ten, or 35 ~\~
thrice ten, as the case may be, up to one hundred, which
is expressed by (^ p>h ; while the intermediate odd num-
bers above tens are denoted by characters added ; thus,
tiri'iity-five in Chinese would be m -4- jj^ twice ten and
Jive ; characters standing before -I- being tens, and after
it units. The Egyptian numerals, as far as I have been
able to ascertain them from records of the hieroglyphs to
which I have access, are: | oni ■ ; J| two; ||| three;

mi >-"■.■ inn /»,■ mni->- limn «•■«.■ «■« p™"*

eight and nine are the same, with the addition of a stroke
to each. However, this figure C\ is the sign for ten, to
which numerals in the above form are affixed, to denote
any additional uumbcr; as C\\m ten and seven (three
and four) stand for seventeen. Again; forty-two in
Egyptian is thus made, nOOA namely, four tens
and two. It is true, the present Chinese strokes are
horizontal, and the Egyptian vertical ; while some of the
numerals of the former are not composed of single straight
lines: the difference, however, is rather apparent than
real ; since on the ancient vases of the Chinese the sym-

AND ORDINALS. 97

bol for one is not horizontal but vertical, that is, exactly
the same as the Egyptian, thus I ; and for ten it is made
with ♦ a ball in the middle of the vertical stroke,
omitting the horizontal ; thirty made thus 444- and forty
thus 4141 are not in form greatly unlike the Egyptian
mode, while the principle is the same ; four was anciently
written thus ;i=r composed of twice two ; from which I
infer all the numerals of the Chinese to have been ori-
ginally like those of the Egyptian, which we have traced
as far as seven.

Ordinals seem also to be formed by the same process
in both languages, which consists in placing a certain
character before the numeral to change its signification,
as l^j before — - in Chinese itf — - and a hieroglyph
of this form (?\^^ before J in Egyptian Q*^/^ I both
denote the first ; and so with all the other numbers up to
ten. The repetition of an act is indicated by a certain
symbol placed after the number, as thrice would be ex-
pressed in Egyptian by Jj^ and in Chinese thus tp| >
literally, three times. Now, while the figure of the cha-
racters is different, their order and principle are, in every
instance, the same, which are important points in the
comparison of languages without an alphabet ; and more
especially as, in this respect, they resemble no other
known language of the world.

There are also numerous symbols drawn exactly alike
in both tongues, specimens of which I subjoin, with the
Chinese meaning attached, but without the Egyptian,
which, I believe, is not yet fixed : they are ++ the com-
posite form of grass ; zzz two ; ^^£ three ; P] a w^mM ;
-4- ten ; ZTZL a whole line on a divided line, like the
symbols in the Yih-king, the combinations of which will

98 CHINESE AND EGYPTIAN SYMBOLS.

be explained afterwards; J^ a spoon; /-*■» to cover;
ifc luxuriant, a fine appearance; -4r great, which oc-
curs twenty-eight times on Plate 79 of Champollion's
collection of Egyptian symbols ; ^ part of; ^p to wor-
ship; QQ a dish. In Chinese these are significant repre-
sentations either of external objects or abstract notions ;
but whether they betoken any thing correspondent in
Egyptian must be determined by future researches.

It will be obvious to the intelligent reader, that to do
justice to this subject would require a volume ; and there-
fore that the brief space occupied by my remarks can only
contain a few specimens of the mode of discussion and
illustration, the interesting details of which, as they would
constantly accumulate in prosecuting the researches to
their legitimate results, must be reserved for a more
formal and direct investigation of the points in question.
Is it too much to hope, since the importance of such
studies is at once admitted, that a portion of the learned
of Great Britain, whose empire has so absorbing an in-
terest in Oriental language and literature, will consecrate
their abilities and zeal to the cultivation of philology,
especially of the symbolical character, as the basis of a
more extended acquaintance with the physiology of the
human race ?

yy

SECTION II.

A SKETCB OF THE ANCIENT HISTOBT OF CHINA — CHARACTER OF HER
FIRST SOVBJUHONB — RECORDS OF THE DELUGE — LAWS, ANTIQUITIES,
AND CUSTOM* OF HER EARLIEST INHABITANTS.

Ths immediate origin of nations lies concealed in remote
antiquity, accessible only by fables and genealogies, which
would be utterly unworthy of attention, were it not that
outlines of truth are traced amidst delineations of error,
and facts disclosed which incidentally corroborate the
divine records. Pretensions to celestial descent, a very
high antiquity, or super-human usages, so enthral the
reasoning powers, and debase the understandings of civil-
ized Pagans, that the most puerile and absurd fictions
propagated by the historian, are believed by the mass
of the people. Tradition — the source of information, and
basis of historic records, respecting the ancient world — is
most uncertain both with regard to the correctness of its
communications, and the period during which even true
statements remain unadulterated. When occurrences have
been committed to writing early, allusions to them in
future ages will coincide much more accurately with the
original than in cases only supported by oral testimony ;
and hence, from the early cultivation of letters by the
Chinese, their account of the Deluge, though intermingled
with fable, may be expected to resemble the unquestion-

h2

100 FIRST RULER OP CHINA.

able facts of the Mosaic narrative more closely than
traditions of the same event among tribes unacquainted
with the art of writing. The materials of thought first
embodied in composition, would be derived from familiar
habits of reflection, present wants and feelings, and at-
tachment to immemorial customs. Notwithstanding the
false and foolish systems, superstitious observances, his-
torical and speculative errors, prevalent in nations remote
from the first abode of man, they are founded on tradi-
tional truth, of which some fragments still remain in the
partial resemblance of their parables, proverbs, and cus-
toms, to those of sacred Scripture. Evidence on this point
is furnished by the Chinese, who carry their historical
researches beyond the Flood, and profess to describe occur-
rences before that catastrophe, which could only be known
through the medium of one family. According to their
records, Pwan-hoo was the first person in existence after
the separation of the heavens and the earth, between
which he lived, whose heights and depths, together with
the principles of creation, he had ability to comprehend.
He was the original ruler of the world. Some native
descriptions represent him as wearing an apron of leaves,
and holding the sun and moon in either hand, but say
nothing of his creation. Others describe him as an ex-
traordinary personage from the vast deserts, whose origin
is unknown, who was four times taller than other human
beings, had horns on his head, and teeth protruding out
of his mouth. He is said to have taught navigation, made
passages through the mountains, and to have reigned as
the first king of the human race.

To the government of this imaginary sovereign suc-
ceeded three dynasties, denominated, Teen-hwang-she, Te-

HEAVEN, EARTH, AND MAN'8 DYNASTIES. 101

kwang-she, Jin-hwang-she ; that is, the imperial families of
heaven, earth, and man.

The first (heaven's) dynasty embraced a period of
eighteen thousand years, during which thirteen brothers
reigned, who were wholly abstracted, inactive, and en-
gaged in constant self-renovation. Certain astronomical
characters, denominated " celestial stems," and now used
in chronological computation, were, it is said, invented at
this sera to determine the length of the year.

During the second dynasty (earth's), comprising the same
term of years, eleven brothers reigned, who instituted laws
relating to the heavenly bodies, by which day and night
were divided, and thirty days assigned to one month.

The third dynasty (man's), extended through a space of
forty-five thousand years, during which nine brothers
ruled. In this period hills and rivers were separated into
nine divisions. Human beings, among whom respectful
manners and pure customs prevailed, occupied one terri-
tory. The kingly office was not mere pageantry; nor
were the functions of state ministers empty titles. Good
government was established by rulers, and correct instruc-
tion diffused among the people. Males and females ori-
ginated food and drink.

The three periods into which this fabulous cera was
divided, accord in arrangement with the Chinese theory*
of creation, which recognizes heaven, earth, and man, as
three great powers, by which all inferior things were ori-
ginally produced.

A native historian,-)- disputing the chronological state-
ments it involves, reasons in the following manner: —

• The principle, of this theory wUl be explained afterwards,
t See Kmnf-kttn-e-cke, a native history, in 40 vols., from which the matter
in the text has been derived.

102

OPINIONS OF NATIVE niBTOllUN

" How," he asks, " could ten thousand years and upwards
elapse, after the existence of the causative principle, be-
fore the male power was begotten, and the heavens were
spread abroad ; and then a similar period pass away prior
to the birth of its female coadjutor, and the formation of
the earth, and then another of equal duration precede the
union of these creative elements and the generation of
al! things? and, moreover, a process of operation then
take place, requiring from its origin to its completion
forty or fifty thousand years, before the sages were bora .'
Is not such a theory in direct opposition to all reason ?
From Yaou and Shun to the present time includes about
three thousand years. The three dynasties, Hea, Shang,
and Chow, were not equal in duration to the reigns of Tang
and Yu who preceded them; while Han, Tang, and £ung
were comprised in a still shorter period. Now if, in
the revolutions of time, affairs are not stable more than
two or three centuries, how could forty or fifty thousand
years revolve after the creation, before aerial elements
began to act, human excellence was developed, the waters
were separated from the earth, or the people supplied with
food ? Is it probable these important affairs were in dis-
order until the time of the jive emperors? I am of opinion,
that Pwan-koo did not long precede F tin-he and Shin-nuuy,
perhaps a thousand years, certainly not ten thousand,
and that they were succeeded by Yaou and Shun, probably
at the distance of a century — assuredly not a thousand
years. Every scholar ought minutely to investigate the
subject." Choo-foo-tsze, a celebrated historian and phi-
losopher of the twelfth century, remarks of this period,
that several tilings ascribed to it were invented in sub-
sequent ages, and the " stream of lime rolled back; it

INVENTOR OF THE RITB8 OP SACRIFICE. 103

being impossible to give entire credit to the traditions of
those remote ages."

Emerging from mere fable we are still left in much
darkness and uncertainty. Three celebrated emperors,
it is said, ruled over China in high antiquity, the first of
whom commenced his reign B.C. 3369. It is from this
period that Choo-tsze, already alluded to, begins his his-
tory. The name of this prince was Tae-haou — " excessive
splendour/' because his perfect holiness and virtue were
resplendent as the luminaries of heaven ; and Fuh-he,
corrupted from Paou-he, "the sacrificer," because he
taught the rites of sacrifice. " In the beginning of hu-
man life/' says Chinese history, " men and beasts herded
together; mankind knew they had a mother, but were
ignorant of their father, and followed the impulses of their
passions without restraint from polite ceremonies. But
Fuh-he invented nets for fishes, and snares for wild beasts,
in the use of which he instructed the people, for the two-
fold purpose of supplying their wants and procuring
victims to offer in sacrifice. He recommended pastoral
employments, taught music, and enforced the duty of
marriage. He drew eight diagrams, to represent the man-
ner in which the world originated, and to illustrate the
changes and combinations in nature during the process
of creation. His virtue united supreme intelligence above
and subordinate powers beneath. In the heavens were
seen celestial resemblances, with splendid figures of birds
and other creatures ; on the earth, descriptions from dra-
gons and horses, which served as models for his imitation ;
while midway between heaven and earth was the golden
medium or true principle of all thiugs." " Some European
writers/' remarks Dr. Morrison, " have ventured to call

104 INSTRUCTOR IN CEREMONIES AND MUSIC.

Fiih-he the same person as Noah of the west ; but as the
tradition is that he had no father, was the first to whom
mortal reign was given, that his name was Fung TVC\ ruach,
wind, spirit, breath, perhaps implying that he derived his
name from the breath of the Almighty ; that he possessed
perfect holiness and virtue, resplendent as the glorious
lights of the sun and moon, from which his name Tae-
paou is taken ; that he taught the various useful arts and
rites of sacrifice, from which circumstance is derived his
name Paou-he, the sacrifice^ afterwards corrupted to
Fuh-he ; and that his posterity reigned fifteen generations
during a period of 17,787 years; according to this tra-
dition he may probably be considered the first of human
kind — the Adam of the west, rather than Noah. ,,# Se-
veral epithets are given to this sovereign, expressive of
the arts and practices which he originated, according to
Chinese custom, with regard to inventors of civil or sacred
employments : the most interesting, however, is the offerer
of sacrifice, since it not only indicates the high antiquity
of this species of worship, but confirms the opinion, that
sacred usages were diffused by tradition among the an-
cient nations, of which one of the most important was
that of victims offered by the head of the family in his
sacerdotal character.

Another personage named Neu-wo-she is supposed to
have lived in an early age of the world, whom some affirm
to be a divinity, others a sacred female whose power was
conspicuous in creation, and others, one whose sex is
undetermined, but of the same maternal descent as Fuh-
he. She was born with divine intelligence, and became a
conductor of ceremonies preliminary to marriage. She is

* Sec Morrison's Dictionary, Vol. I. p. 669.

ORIGINATOR OF FIRE. 105

said to have melted stones to repair the heavens, and to
have destroyed the successor of Fun-he, because he raised
a flood of water and spread misery and desolation on
the earth. She made wind and stringed instruments, to
harmonize aerial elements, assist the gods at solemn rites,
and tranquillize the dispositions of men. Since this per-
sonage is described as repairing the wastes occasioned by
a deluge, her story slightly resembles that of Ovid's
Pyrrha, who with Deucalion, the survivors of the poet's
flood, restored the human race by casting stones behind
them.

Suy-jin-she, sometimes confounded with Neu-wo-she,
was the first person, according to tradition, who obtained
fire by friction in boring wood, whence he acquired the
title " fire producer." The people, who had made some pro-
gress in civilization, were still ignorant of cooking, until
this individual, by observing the heavenly bodies and inves-
tigating the five elements, perceived that the firmament
contained fire, and a beautiful wood the property of light.
He set apart ten different trees, from which, according to
their season, he obtained the element of fire, and taught
the people its application to domestic and other purposes ;
these were — in spring, the elm and the weeping willow ;
in summer, the date and the almond, for which, in the
last month of that quarter, two kinds of mulberry were
substituted ; in autumn, two species not seasoned, one of
a firm, the other of a flexible texture, the latter of
which was used also in sacrifices ; and in winter, the ash-
tree and the sandal-wood. During this period, and by
the same person, knotted cords were invented, preliminary
to the art of writing, for which it was a substitute ; and
as a means of government, there were larger or smaller

THE DIVINE HUSBANDMAN.

knots made as the affairs to be remembered were of
greater or les9 moment. Schools of instruction, or rather
elevated terraces, open on every side, probably such as
were anciently raised at the gates of cities, were now first
established, together with the usages of commercial inter-
course and traffic by barter.

These records, translated from native history, when com-
pared with their ancient classical literature, supply the
opinions of the Chinese on the origin of the universe, its
affairs, circumstances, and inhabitants; for which they
endeavour to account, by the exercise of their own inge-
nuity, independently of the statements and reasonings of
other nations, as though they were the entire world, in
which no human beings but their own ancestors ever
possessed an ancient location.

Next on record is Shin-nung, " the divine husbandman,"
who is considered as the father of agricultural pursuits.
He discovered different species of grain, herbs, and medi-
cinal plants; prepared implements of husbandry; taught
his subjects to till the soil, and plant it conformably with
the seasons. When sickness prevailed he tasted the juices
of herbs and trees, and examined the principles of cold
and heat. In one day seventy herbs were, by his divine
renovation, made into prescriptions to cure all kinds of
maladies ; hence the healing art is dated from this period.
He, moreover, examined fountains, and discriminated
sweet waters from those which were bitter. He diffused
knowledge among the people, gave them rest from their
sorrows, caused their food to strengthen them, and saved
them from premature death. The customs of this age
were simple, grave, upright, and virtuous. Resentment
and strife were uuknown. The people brought their im-r-

THE COMPASS AND HORARY CTCLR INVENTED. 107

chandize to the markets and shops now first established
for barter, and having exchanged it retired to their habit-
ations in peace. This personage, " the divine husband-
man/' is now worshipped as the patron of those who till
the land; and his conduct is imitated by the emperor,
who every year sets his hand to the plough, to indicate
his desire for agricultural prosperity.

Hwang-te, the next sovereign, was born with divine in-
telligence, able to speak while an infant, obedient and
respectful in youth, grave and sincere in manhood, dis-
cerning and sagacious in maturer years. The son of his
predecessor was opposed by the nobles of the kingdom,
whose rebellion he himself sought to suppress, without
intending to usurp the government. But when they
offered submission to his authority he accepted it; and
then, by cultivating virtue, preparing weapons, promoting
discipline, and training wild beasts for war, he quickly
subdued all enemies. A partisan of the discarded family
opposed him, and sought to bewilder his army in a mist,
from which, however, he extricated himself by a magnetic
pole attacked to his chariot, which always pointed south ;
and, having slain his adversary, received from the congre-
gated nobility public homage as the son of heaven. In
this reign Ta-yaou invented a system of chronological
computation by a cycle of sixty years. It is denominated
kwa-hea-tsze 9 the first year of which is computed from the
sixty-first of this reign.* It is composed of certain astro-
nomical or horary characters, denominated the ten celestial
stems, and the twelve terrestrial branches — the former are
kea, yih, ping, ting, woo, ke, kang, sin, jin, kwei ; the
latter, tsze, chow, yin, maou, shin, sze, woo, we, shin, yew,

* B.C. 1596.

108

chikf.se sv>ti:m of ( >i no no logy.

scab, hae. The terms are applied to years, months, days,
and hours ; thus kea-tsze denotes the first year of the
cycle, and the beginning of the month, or day, because
these two are the first characters of the series; that is,
kea is the first of the celestial stems, and tsze the first of
the terrestrial branches ; and thus they proceed regularly
to ten, when the celestial numbers being exhausted, the
first of them is then united with the eleventh terrestrial,
thus hea-seuk stand for eleven. The numerical value of
the characters depends entirely on their relative position,
and may be further illustrated by the characters woo-teuh,
which denote the thirty-fifth year of the cycle, where setth,
that represented one in eleven, occupies the place of Jiee.
Were it not that two signs represent single figures under
ten, the celestial stems would stand for tens, and the
terrestrial for units, changing, however, their value ac-
cording to their relative position. The number to which
the cycle is limited containing just six times the number
of celestial signs, and five times the number of the ter-
restrial, the two last characters in each stand for sixty.
The terms of the cycle, which are not used in ordinary
enumeration, are applied to the points of the compass, the
needle of which is said to point to the south : this in-
strument appears to have been derived from the magnetic
pole anciently attached to chariots, alluded to above, and
was probably invented in China at a very early period.
The terrestrial branches are also applied to the day, which
is divided into twelve periods of two hours each. The
first sign, tsze, denotes midnight, which embraces the
preceding and the subsequent hour, each character being
prefixed by heaoa or eking; as AmmMcm duotee from
eleven till twelve, and rkin;/-tsze from twelve to one — the

REARING OF THE 8 ILK-WORM. 109

first watch of the night ; these two characters are placed
before the other signs in the same way as woo, " the
point of noon/' preceded by keaou ; keaou-woo would point
out the hour from eleven to twelve at noon, and by ching,
dung-woo, from twelve to one o'clock.

Whenever this system was invented it has certainly
prevailed throughout many centuries, and deserves atten-
tion from every Chinese scholar who would ascertain the
chronological matters of the Chinese according to their
own arrangement. It was during this reign that Tsang-
kee-Uee, minister of state of Hwang-te, invented the sym-
bols of the language, which we have already explained.
Persons were appointed to make astronomical observa-
tions on the different heavenly bodies, particularly the
Great Bear, and to investigate the nature of the five
elements — water, fire, metal, wood, and earth. Alma-
nacs were first made, and a sort of armillary sphere
prepared to represent the laws and revolutions of the
heavenly bodies. Caps were now brought into use, high
behind and low in front, whose pendent ornaments pre-
vented the eye from seeing depraved objects, with a
provision on each side to guard the ear against slanderous
insinuations ; diamonds collected on a string of silk, con-
stituted these moral safeguards. Colours employed were
black and yellow, in imitation of heaven and earth;
flowers of plants and trees were used for dyeing, to dis-
tinguish between nobles and plebeians. Chariots, horses,
and bullocks began to be used. A temple was erected, in
which sacrifices were offered to Shang-te, the supreme
ruler. Persons were instructed by the queen, Yuen-fei,
to rear the silk-worm, who arranged the silk it produced
for weaving, and supplied garments throughout the

110

IlEGINNINfi OF ANCESTRAL WORSniP.

"

empire; whence after-ages sacrificed to her as origin-
ating the nurture of the silk -worm. Che-keang is now
the principal province for the cultivation of the mulberry-
tree, on which the silk-worm is reared, with which Kcang-
nan, Hoo-peih, and Sze-chueu are the only provinces that
produce fine silk. Further particulars on the care be-
stowed by the Chinese in nourishing the silk-worm, de-
rived from native authorities, will be introduced in the
chapter on natural history.

In this reign cities and towns were built, and governors
appointed over them to unite all in harmony. Measures
for land were adopted, to sooth irritation and allay dis-
contents among the people. When the emperor died, one
of his ministers took his garments, cap, table, and staff
into the temple of ancestors, and there sacrificed to his
MMM,

With regard to the next sovereign, nothing worth
translating is recorded; we shall therefore pass on to his
successor, Ckuen-hettn, a title expressive of his eminent
and correct conduct. When fifteen years old he became
the minister of his predecessor, and at the age of thirty
succeeded him as emperor. He was free from selfish
partialities, and diffused substantial benefits throughout
his kingdom. His mind was comprehensive enough to
embrace distant objects, and sufficiently clear to inves-
tigate minute affairs, tie obeyed the will of Heaven,
and acquainted himself with the necessities of the people.
He blended benevolence with dignity, kindness with
faithfulness, and cultivated personal virtues, by which he
obtained universal homage. His countenance was pleas-
ing, his virtue lofty, and bis deportment resembled the
BOtioa of the heavenly bodies. Having chosen the golden

ALMANACS AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 1 1 1

medium, he filled his earthly domain with benign in-
fluences ; so that wherever the sun and moon shone, or
wind and rain penetrated, there he received unfeigned
submission. He and his queen offered sacrifice to the
supreme ruler ; after which she bore him a son, from
whom the Chow dynasty descended. He prayed again,
when he was encouraged by the felicitous omen of a
flying swallow, and another son was born to him, who
became the source of the Shang dynasty. A red dragon
was the omen which appeared when Yaou was born. A
fourth son became heir to the throne. He, however,
proceeded to unlimited dissipation, and on account of bad
government the nobles deposed him, and established Yaou
in his stead. This is the ancient chieftain so renowned
for his personal excellence and virtuous government. He
was a descendant of Hwang-te. Heaven and men having
sternly rejected his wicked predecessor, inferior princes
acknowledged his sovereignty. He ascended the throne
at the age of sixteen ; fire was the element chosen to illus-
trate the virtues by which he reigned, in allusion to the five
elements of which the earth is composed. He commanded
two astronomers to make almanacs, and celestial in-
struments for dividing time; to determine the means of
supplying an intercalary month, to regulate the four
seasons, and to complete the year. Southern barbarians
came to court, and presented the emperor with a divine
tortoise, occupying a space of more than three cubits,
m a r ked on the back like a frog ; and bearing historical
records from the creation to the present time. Yaou
commanded it to be enrolled and designated the astro-
nomical tortoise. In the palace grew a felicitous plant,
which put forth a leaf every day, from the first of the

112

HAPPINESS OF THE PEOPLE.

month till the fifteenth; after which it daily shed a leaf
until there were but few left, when one leaf was bo ob-
stinate as to remain ; from which circumstance the decades
of every mouth were ascertained, and the plant denomi-
nated "the astronomical plant." The felicitous omens,
Ke-lin, a male and female fabulous animal, and fung-
fiwavg, a male and female bird of the imagination — the
phceuix of the Chinese, which always appear in seasons
of prevailing virtue, now by their presence bore testimony
to Heaven's approbation of the reigning sovereign. When
he made a tour through his dominions, the boys sung in
the streets, "To support us your multitudinous subjects
is your majesty's highest delight ; who, without under-
standing, and in a manner unconscious, obey your ma-
jesty's laws." The old men played at the jang, # and
sung upon the road, " The sun rises, and we go forth to
labour; the sun sets, and we retire to rest : we dig wells
and drink; we plough our fields and eat; what is the
influence your majesty exerts over us?"+ Officers of
bordering territories blessed him, and said, "May riches,
long life, and many sons, crown your majesty's sacred
person." The emperor replied, " Numerous sons cause
painful apprehensions; riches involve many cares; and

* The jang ni a piece of wood like a shoe, a cubit and four -tenths long,
and three. lentha « i Je . One end wu wide, ami the other pointed. The boys
who played at it in the close of the year, divided themselves into two parties,
and laying one jang on the ground, walked with another in the hand to the
distance of thirty or forty paces, from whence they threw it at that lying on
the ground, and he who inserted the one within the other, won Uie game. —
See Morrison's Dictionary, Vol. I. Part I. p. 558, word Jang.

t The looga of the boys and old men indicate the blessings of good govern-
ment, which was so benign in its aspect that it* subjects were almost uncoa.
Bciotu of being under any authority, " To ploy at the jang, and sing, denotes
• period of general national prosperity : this custom caunot be adopted on any
family or individual occasion of Jo*," — Sec Morrison, M above, page 5G0.

THE ANCIENT EMPEROR YAOU. 1 13

long life meets with much disgrace/* His congratulators
rejoined, " Heaven having created all people, gives suitable
occupations. Where there are many sons, situations will
be provided; what need is there of fear? If riches abound,
persons can be employed to distribute them ; why should
trouble be anticipated ? The principles, as well as the
material objects of the universe, are splendid and glorious.
When good doctrines cease to exist, the cultivation of
virtue must fail ; then your majesty can leave the world
to join the immortal genii ; and where is the disgrace of
ascending a white cloud to associate with the imperial
clan ?" The Shoo-king speaks of Yaou as acquiring the
title " extensive merit/' by his devotion to good govern-
ment. He was reverential, intelligent, cultivated, thought-
ful, and withal easy and graceful in his deportment.
These virtues were rendered illustrious by his external
acts ; he scrutinized heaven above, and earth beneath.
His exalted virtue was displayed in love for his kindred,
to the union of whom in affection an equitable adjustment
of national affairs succeeded ; and when his own people
were enlightened, he then united all provinces in harmony
corresponding to the regularity and order of the seasons.
In his benevolence he resembled Heaven, in his wisdom a
divinity. His presence displayed the splendour of the
sun ; his deportment the majesty of the clouds. His vast
resources were unaccompanied with pride ; and his dis-
tinguished rank sustained without extravagance. He
wore a yellow cap and silken garments; rode in a
crimson chariot drawn by white horses. Rushes covered
his pavilion, which had not been prepared by art; its
beams were destitute of ornament, and the whole struc-
ture plain and substantial without pillars. There was no

1

114 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OP

outward adorning to the carriage in which he went to
sacrifice to Heaven. Mats were woven of grass. Soups
were not enriched with condiments. Rice and vegetables
were served up in earthenware dishes, liquids in earthen
vessels. There was no display of gold and silver, pearls
and diamonds, embroidered and ornamented silks, or rare
and costly articles of any description. Instruments of
amusement were dises teemed. Lascivious sounds of music
were never heard. The walls of the palace and other
apartments had no expensive colouring. Cloth formed
the upper, and skins the lower clothing of the body,
which, as well. as shoes, were not renewed until quite
old.

The following account of the Chinese deluge, which
occurred in this reign, is translated from the Shoo-king.
According to the Chinese system of chronology it hap-
pened in the year of the world seventeen hundred and
thirteen, which is only fifty-seven years later than the
generally received date of the deluge of Moses.

" The emperor Yaou said : * Vast and destructive are
the accumulating waters, which having overflowed their
banks, rise so high as to cover the hills, and overtop the
loftiest mountains, while they are co-extensive with the
spacious concave of heaven. Alas for the mass of the
people; who shall relieve them from their calamities?'
All replied, 'Behold, Kwan!' 'Ah no; it cannot be;'
answered his majesty ; ' he opposes the commands of his
superiors, and subverts the nine classes of kindred.' It
was remarked by the ministers, ' That is doubtful, try him ;
perhaps he may succeed.' The emperor said, ' Let him go,
then ; but be cautious.' He was engaged nine years with-
out accomplishing his task, and eventually atoned for the

THB CHINESE DELUGE. 115

failure by his death. Yu, his son, was next employed,
who perfected the great work of removing the flood, and
restoring order to the empire. The following dialogue,
on the subject of his labours, occurred between Yu and
his sovereign. The emperor says, ' Approach the imperial
presence, you have abundant communications to make.'
Yu worshipped, and said, ' May it please your majesty,
how can I speak ? My thoughts were unweariedly and
incessantly employed day by day. The deluge rose high,
and spread wide as the spacious vault of heaven; buried
the hills and covered the mountains with its waters, into
which the common people, astonished to stupefaction,
sunk. I travelled on dry land in a chariot, on water in a
boat, in miry places on a sledge, and climbed the sides
of hills by means of spikes in my shoes, i went from
mountain to mountain felling trees ; fed the people with
raw food ; formed a passage for the waters to the sea on
every part of the empire, by cutting nine distinct beds
and preparing channels to conduct them to the rivers.
The waters having subsided, I taught the people to plough
and sow, who, while the devastating effects of the flood
continued, were constrained to eat uncooked food. I
urged them to barter such things as they could spare for
others of which they stood in need. In this way the
people were fed, and ten thousand provinces restored to
order and prosperity. May your majesty now be atten-
tive to the duties and honours of the throne, and rest in
the highest point of virtuous government. Think of the
secret springs of action. Meditate with delight on su-
preme excellence. See that your ministers are upright*
Rouse them to answer great expectations, and watch the
bent of their minds ; so will you render indubitable proof

i2

116 THE EMPEROR'S CHARGE TO MINISTERS.

that your authority is derived from the supreme ruler.
Heaven has invested you anew with its commands ; em-
ploy your influence to excite admiration and praise.'
' Ministers/ said the sovereign, * are my legs and arms,
ears and eyes; I desire you, my attendant officers of
state, to take charge of the people, and render effective
aid. Proclaim my authority to the four quarters of the
world, and see it respected. Examine representations of
things made by the ancients. The sun, moon, stars, and
constellations, mountains, dragons, flowers, and insects,
must be painted in groups. Variegated colours in em-
broidery must be blended to diffuse the five natural
colours, blue, red, yellow, white, and black, in external
ornaments for dresses ; do you explain my wishes. I
desire to hear the laws and notes and sounds of music; do
you quickly examine and adjust them, that you may issue
my orders. Be attentive. If I am in error, correct me.
Do not obey in my presence, and reproach me when you
retire. Respect the ministers of state. The common
people are stupid and slanderous. If they neglect their
duty in proper season, be careful to enlighten them. Im-
press instruction on their memories by blows, and exercise
their understandings by writing. I desire that they may
live in equal circumstances. Promote industry by my
authority, and in proper season. If the people come,
assist and employ them ; but if they are unwilling, use
intimidation. ' Yu assented, and replied, 'The emperor
enlightens the universe. His illuminating influence ex-
tends to the inhabitants of every nook, to the utmost
boundaries of the sea, and to the black-haired sacrificers
of ten thousand provinces. Only your majesty must be
attentive to your ministers. When they are promoted,

CHARACTER OF HIS SUCCESSOR. 117

let them diffuse instruction in language, and illuminate
the people by virtuous examples. Let chariots and official
garments be in constant use, and then who will dare to
refuse submission ? who will presume at any time to dis-
obey your majesty? Let instructions be published as
soon as they are received, and a report made of the un-
worthy.' "

On the death of this emperor, in his hundred and se-
cond year, the empire did not revert to his son, but to
Shun, who forthwith ascended the imperial throne. His
fame first reached his predecessor in the sixtieth year of
his age. His filial piety, for which he became so eminently
distinguished, was severely tried after the death of his
mother, by the inhuman treatment of his father, who,
having married again, loved his second wife's children,
and hated Shun, whom he not only punished for the most
trivial faults, but sought to slay. His step-mother was
deceitful, and his younger brother proud ; yet his sub-
mission and love never sunk below the correct standard.
He was dutiful to his parents, and tenderly affectionate to
his brother. He cultivated reverence and seriousness
until his virtues eventually united his family in harmony,
and averted those calamities which their crimes were
hastening. Such was his reputation for filial obedience,
that when he went to plough at the age of twenty, all the
inhabitants of the district where he resided yielded him
precedence ; similar honours were rendered by fishermen
and potters among whom he lived and laboured. He
successively raised by his industrious exertions a village,
m town, and a city. In the Shoo-king it is said, " If you
examine the character of the ancient monarch Shun, you
will perceive that it resembles that of his royal prede-

118 GOVERNMENT COMMITTED TO SHUN.

cessor. He was distinguished by profound wisdom, acute
intelligence, ornamental and splendid virtues, an amiable
and grave deportment, faithfulness and sincerity. From
the report of his excellencies, the emperor appointed him
to official duties, that he might prove his talents and
virtues, and observe his capacity for business. Being
able to exemplify the five constant virtues — benevolence*
justice, decorum, wisdom, and sincerity — he was promoted
to the office of superintending the servants of government,
and afterwards created master of ceremonies, on whom it
devolved to introduce nobles of the empire at court when
they came to do homage for their territories. Commanded
by his majesty to explore the recesses of a large forest,
and examine the sources of an inundation, he was over-
taken by a tremendous storm of thunder and rain, which
occasioned general alarm for his safety ; but he displayed
the superiority of his genius, in escaping without loss of
self-possession from dangers which would have over*
whelmed ordinary men. ■> Of courage and capacity so
unequivocally manifested, the emperor could no longer
refrain from expressing his admiration, and rendering an
adequate reward. Having therefore summoned Shun to
an audience, he thus addressed him : ' I have fully scru-
tinized your character, rigorously tested your plans for
conducting important affairs, and carefully investigated
your deliberative councils ; I now, therefore, in consider**
tion of your meritorious exertions, declare that three
years. hence you shall ascend the imperial throne.' Shun
humbly declined the honour in favour of one more wor-
thy, and further alleged his want of posterity as an
impediment to hereditary succession. His objections*
however, being overruled, he assumed the cares* and re-

RITES AND CEREMONIES. 119

sponsibility of government from Yaou in the ancestral
temple. He examined astronomical instruments for the
purpose of adjusting the seven ruling powers — the sun
and moon; Venus, or the gold star; Jupiter, or the
wood star ; Mercury, or the water star ; Mars, or the fire
star; and Saturn, or the earth star — names borrowed
from the constituent parts of the earth to illustrate the
properties of the most remarkable planets." Allusion is
made to a kind of planetarium, made of stone, to represent
the motion of the heavens; and to an instrument for
observing celestial phenomena. The former is said to be
adorned with costly pearls, the latter with diamonds :
their names, literally translated from Chinese, are, " the
beautiful pearl revolver, and the diamond quadrant." A
plate of this instrument is given in the nineteenth volume
of an imperial work on astronomy. Shun undertook
astronomical duties as first in importance on assuming
imperial authority. A great sacrifice was offered to the
supreme ruler ; one of lesser value, denominated " pure/ 9
was presented to the six objects of universal honour — the
four seasons, and the male and female power in nature,
Yin and Yang : offerings were also dedicated to moun-
tains and rivers, and a tour of respect performed to the
whole circle of deities. He collected the five stone seals,
which were anciently distributed among the nobles as
tokens of security for their faithfulness ; had an interview
with the local magistrates, and bestowed seals of office on
the assembled princes. He undertook a tour of inspection
through the different provinces of his empire ; promoted
uniformity in the revolutions of the seasons by establishing
fixed laws; regulated the ceremonies to be observed in
prosperity and adversity, military discipline, the rites of

120 LAWS AND CU8TOM8.

hospitality and marriage, fixed the five valuable stones,
which denoted the rank of the nobles ; the three pieces of
silk, which, being three times dyed in scarlet, constituted
their badge of distinction ; the two living sacrifices and
one dead victim which were to be offered as presents by
officers according to their grade. When he had com-
pleted the first of his tours, which were made east, south,
west, and north, once in five years, he returned to the
temple of ancestors and offered bullocks in sacrifice.
Then the princes from the four quarters of the empire
assembled at court, and presented statements to their
sovereign, who with illustrious wisdom examined them by
the standard of meritorious exertion, and rewarded the
deserving with chariots and robes. He instituted laws
with penal sanctions, and relaxed the severity of the five
punishments : these consisted in branding the criminal's
face with ink, cutting off the nose, taking away the knee-
pan, mutilation, and death ; for which were substituted
flogging, applicable to officers of government; beating,
to schoolmasters who neglected their duty; gold, to
crimes whose punishment might be commuted for money ;
in many instances alleviating natural calamities, and
exercising his prerogative of mercy by distributing par-
dons: death was, however, still decreed to murderers
and robbers. " Respect this : respect this ! and punish
offenders tenderly," were the closing injunctions of his
majesty's edict. Having transported three criminals, and
put to death Kwan, who failed to remove the waters of
the deluge from the earth, tranquillity was restored to the
empire. In the twenty-eighth year of Shun's reign, Yaou
died, as a leaf falls from the tree and fades away. The
people mourned over him as over a parent for three

APPOINTMENT OP CIVIL OPFICER8. 121

yean; and music was prohibited throughout the terri-
tories over which he had reigned. Shun, on the first of
the first month, went to the temple of ancestors, and
commanded his attendants to throw open the gates of the
court, make proclamation to the intelligent and discerning
throughout the empire, and invite honest men to enter
the service of government. He instructed each governor
of the twelve districts into which his territory was divided
to supply the people with suitable food in its proper
season, to bring distant strangers near by tenderness of
treatment, to reverence outward virtue, to be faithful to
sound principles, and to exercise forbearance under diffi-
cult circumstances ; then barbarians would all yield sub-
mission. He, moreover, inquired who was able to spread
abroad the principles of the golden medium, and render
illustrious the annals of their sovereign. Nine officers of
government were immediately appointed; among whom
Yu, who repaired wastes and disorders occasioned by the
deluge, was elevated to the station of prime minister ; the
next in rank presided over the agricultural department ;
the third, was president of the board of instruction; the
fourth, criminal judge ; the fifth, director of public works ;
the sixth, commissioner of woods and forests, or, more
literally, mountains and marshes, with a special injunction
to take care of the imperial park ; the seventh, master of
religious rites in the temple of ancestors, on whom it
devolved to see proper ceremonies observed, and the gods
worshipped according to rank and precedence ; the eighth,
superintendent of music, whom the emperor enjoined to
instruct his eldest son, and to be sincere, but mild; be-
nignant, and withal firm ; unyielding, yet not tyrannical ;
and great without pride. " Poetry,** said he, " is the

122 POWER OP POETRY.

language of the heart ; the expressions of song are eternal ;
its sounds never fail ; its notes and laws combine harmo-
niously y without interruption or discord: music has the
power of uniting men and gods in mutual concord."
His minister remarked, " If I were to play upon sonor-
ous stones, the very beasts of the forest would respond
to my music by dancing;" like another Orpheus,
who by the sweetness of his song allured woods and
rocks, with their animated inhabitants, to follow him :
the ninth, promulgator of imperial edicts, to whom his
majesty declared, " I hate slanderous speech and cruel
conduct which agitate and alarm my people. I require
you, morning and evening, to issue my commands: only
be faithful." In his' second year, the emperor sought
persons of virtue and talent to become imperial censors,
who should assist him in the correct discharge of his
duties, by a faithful representation of his foibles and im-
perfections. He examined his servants once in three
years, to excite their attention, on the principle that
human nature, when liberal, must enlarge its beneficence,
and when excessively stern must relax its severity. Those
who had sunk into obscurity by want of exertion he de-
graded, and promoted such as had rendered themselves
eminent by virtuous deeds, rewarding or punishing ac-
cording to intelligence and truth. Shun spent thirty
years of his life in private ; thirty in an official station ;
sat upon the throne fifty; and died at the age of an
hundred and ten years.

If the character of the ancient illustrious Yu be ex-
amined, it will be seen in his aiding the emperor to diffuse
instruction throughout his dominions. It is said, princes
are able to sympathize in the troubles of princes; mi-

VIRTUOUS RULER8 PROSPEROUS. 123

lusters can appreciate the difficulties of ministers. Govern-
ment is powerful ; the people respect virtue. The emperor
says, " Be sincere and complaisant. Let your words be
excellent without tediousness. Subdue rustics without
exposing the virtuous, and all lands will live in harmony.
Extend your investigations to the people at large. Sacri-
fice your own interests to promote the good of others.
Refrain from tyrannical behaviour towards those who have
none to speak for them. Do not distress the wearied and
exhausted. The emperor only possesses ability at all
times.' 9 Yih says, "May it please your majesty, your
virtue, Sire, revolves in an extended circle. You are holy ;
you are divine ; you are a military and civil ruler. Impe-
rial Heaven's high behests have decreed to you the do-
minion of the four seas : your majesty is constituted prince
of the earthly territory." Yu says, " As the shadow fol-
lows its substance, and the echo reverberates the sound,
•# surely will felicity attend the virtuous, and misery
overtake the rebellious." Yih says, " Guard against un-
foreseen evils ; do not fail to respect the laws. Abstain
from voluptuous ramblings, and lascivious sounds of music.
Be sincerely virtuous, not double-minded. Abandon de-
praved practices without hesitation ; and discard doubtful
plans. In all your anxieties for prosperity be luminous.
Do not resist good principles for the sake of acquiring
popular praise, nor oppose the people to promote selfish
gratification. Be neither haughty nor extravagant, and
barbarians from all quarters will come under your gentle
sway." Yu says, " According to the emperor's reflections,
virtue is chiefly displayed in good government, which
consists in nurturing the people, cultivating each of the
original elements — water, fire, metal, wood, earth, and

124 YU RAISED TO THE THRONE.

grain, and uniting together in harmony a correct moral
deportment, an economical use of essentials, and proper
respect for life. These nine praiseworthy acts should be
celebrated in song according to their order and import-
ance. Instruct with mildness, rule with authority, and
exhort in verse that impending ruin may be averted."

The emperor says, " Well ; earth is adjusted, and hea-
ven is completed. The six physical elements and three
important moral principles, guided by a sincere govern-
ment, will give eternal repose to ten thousand ages,
during which there will be a constant succession of meri-
torious deeds. I now elevate you to my royal pavilion
and imperial seat ; I have reigned thirty-three years, and
at the age of ninety am wearied with diligent study. See
that you rule my people without pride." Yu says, " My
virtue is inadequate to the task. I cannot inspire the
people with confidence. Kaou-Taou is supereminent in
virtue, and will diffuse its benignant influences among the
people, whose hearts will cherish it. Oh, let the emperor
deliberate; oh, think of this man. Select him. Fame
speaks of him. Sincerity recommends him. May your
majesty reflect on his merit." The emperor replied, " Kaou-
Taou is only the minister of the people ; do not mention
him. Go you and discharge your official duties correctly.
Illustrate the five kinds of punishment, originally insti-
tuted to aid instruction, and abolish the necessity of
inflictions. Promote harmony among the people, the
centre of which is the golden medium ; whose meritorious
works will then be seasonable, and their minds fully
engaged in virtuous actions." Kaou-Taou says, "The
emperor's virtue is free from defect or error. He carries
himself towards inferiors with condescension and grace,

CLEMENCY OF HIS GOVERNMENT. 125

governs the multitude on generous principles, nor suffers
punishments to affect immediate posterity, though he
transmits rewards of virtue to distant ages. Where
transgressions are not heinous he bestows pardon, and
inflicts punishments only for heavy crimes. An alleged
offence of doubtful character he considers trivial, but
dubious merit meets with an important recompense. He
would rather the law should be infringed with impunity
than that an innocent man should suffer. Tender regard
for human life is a virtue which deeply imbues the minds
of his subjects, who are hence careful not to offend against
constituted authorities." " Your praise/' said his ma-
jesty, " has no other effect than to stimulate my natural
desire to exercise beneficent government, and to diffuse
salutary influences among the people by a gracious ex-
ample." Addressing Yu, he said, " When the devastating
waters terrified me, you perfected your claim to sincerity
and faithfulness by the accomplishment of renowned
deeds. Virtue and ability to serve your country with
diligence, and to practise economy in domestic matters,
rests with you alone. Without self-sufficiency or os-
tentatious, hypocritical pretensions, you stand pre-emi-
nent in moral worth. No subject will dispute uncon-
querable power, or contend against unrivalled success.
The object of my encouragement is moral excellence;
the theme of my praise, distinguished merit Numbers,
which determine the movements of the heavenly bodies,
depend for their arrangement on your person. You must
ascend the imperial throne. There is nothing more dan-
gerous than the human mind, nothing more subtle than
the principles of reason. Analyze them with the utmost
delicacy of attention and singleness of purpose, that you

126 CEREMONY OF HIS INAUGURATION.

may sincerely apprehend and faithfully preserve the doe
medium. Neither listen to words which evince want of
discrimination ; nor adopt plans destitute of sage counsel.
No object of love can be dearer to a people than their
prince, nor can a prince's fears be roused except by his
subjects. Whom will the multitude respect if they do
not venerate their sovereign? and how can a prince de-
fend his territories except in conjunction with his people ?
Consider these things. Carefully uphold the dignity of
the throne. Let your respect and care surpass the most
ardent expectations in times of public distress, and Hea-
ven will vouchsafe eternal prosperity. Out of the mouth
alone proceeds peace or war. My words shall not be
repeated." Yu replied, " Meritorious ministers must be
sought by divination, and felicitous omens attentively
regarded." The emperor commands : " Examine the
appearances of the prognostic ; but conceal your previous
purposes, and let the decree be regulated by the indica-
tions of the great tortoise. My inclination is pre-deter-
mined ; all its deliberations and schemes agree ; demons
and gods accord with them; the tortoise and spells
harmoniously unite.* Divination is not habitually feli-
citous.' ' Yu worshipped, bowed his head, and would have
firmly refused the honour ; but the emperor insisted on
his acquiescence.

In the first month of the year, Yu received Heaven's
decrees in the divine sanctuary, at the head of all state
officers, according to the ceremony observed when his
present majesty assumed the government, by whom he
was admonished to consider constantly the state of the

* For illustration of this sentiment see chapter on Divination.

OPPOSITION OF MOUNTAINEERS. 127

Meaou,* not to become their leader, but to subjugate
them. Yu and the assembled princes of the empire
administered an oath to the soldiers, whom his majesty
thus admonished : " Ye numerous multitudes, listen to
my commands. Those Meaou are doltish, stupid, and
confused, destitute of reverence, contemptuous, self-righ-
teous tribes, who oppose divine reason, and subvert the
principles of moral excellence. According to their notions,
the mean man occupies the throne, and the philosopher
dwells only among rustics. Such people are accursed,
placed beyond the pale of protection, and fit objects of
divine vengeance. I charge you all, in these instructions,
with the punishment of transgressors. Mental power
consists in unity of purpose, which is the source and
strength of official merit."

During thirty days the Meaou opposed government
edicts. Yih presented a congratulatory address to the
Emperor, saying, " Heaven is acted upon by virtue alone,
to whose influence no limit can be assigned. Self-suffi-
ciency incurs suffering, humility is fraught with blessings.
Undeviating constancy marks the pathway of Heaven.
The emperor t commenced his virtuous career in Leih
Shan, where, as he went to his daily labour, he invoked
the mournful heavens, weeping audibly, on behalf of his
parents, whose sins he would fain bear on his own back,
and thus expiate. He had an interview with his old
blind father, which was conducted on his part with gra-
vity and reverence, fear and trembling ; while the parent,
melted by such filial tenderness into complacency and

• A tribe of mountaineers, supposed to be the aborigines of China., who are
still i distinct people,
t '• '. Shun.

128 PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT.

respect, with the utmost sincerity gave thanks to the
gods : and if he was so overcome by one who had been
obnoxious to him, how much more will these wild moun-
taineers submit to the authority of your majesty?" Yu
respectfully bowed to these splendid sayings, and said,
" Marshal my armies, and arrange the tribes in order.
If his majesty diffuses instruction, extends ornamental
learning and virtue, and encourages such court amuse-
ments as dancing, fencing, and the masquerade, which
will sustain suitable rank between host and guest, in
seventy days the Meaou will yield entire submission."
Kaou-Taou's counsels are : " Tread sincerely in the paths
of virtue. Devise intelligent plans, and procure harmo-
nious ministers." To the inquiry of Yu, how these things
might be accomplished, he replied : " By diligent atten-
tion to personal habits, and ceaseless efforts to improve
the understanding. Sincerely respect the nine degrees
of consanguinity. The people around you being illu-
mined, and treated with cordiality, those who are distant
will feel the benign influence of your gracious conduct.
Prosperity depends on three things — acquaintance with
human nature ; a tranquil government ; and obedience to
the order of the seasons. The emperor alone knows the
difficulties which attend these duties. A correct know-
ledge of mankind involves intuitive wisdom, and an able,
pacific government embraces principles of genuine bene-
volence. When ability, intelligence, and goodness pre-
side over a flourishing community, from what source can
trouble arise? Why abdicate the throne for the sake
of the Meaou ? Why fear deceitful words, a specious
countenance, and a fair exterior? Virtuous conduct is
divisible into nine orders of human excellencies: bene-

PRINCIPLES OP GOVERNMENT. 129

volence tempered with sternness, gentleness with decision,
sincerity with reverential feeling, love of propriety with
external respect, sedateness with magnanimity ; a straight-
forward but conciliating deportment ; generosity without
extravagance ; bravery united with solidity, and fearless-
ness with justice. O how auspicious will be the reign in
which all these virtues are constantly illustrated ! Daily
proclaim the three virtues, that the magistrates may
morning and evening exemplify them. Sternly vene-
rate and respect the six virtues. Enlighten the nobles*
Cherish harmony and diffuse instruction. The nine vir-
tues are adequate to comprehend every affair. Talent
and ability should distinguish officers of government,
whose province it is to direct the multitude. Workmen
should labour in due season, and in harmony with the
five elements, and then the whole routine of merito-
rious deeds will be accomplished. Impart no instruction
to wandering rakes, who desire to obtain the govern-
ment of a province for their own gratification. The
prince must be attentive to his duties, and guard against
the ten thousand circumstances which come daily before
him. He must not be unmindful of public servants.
Labourers are employed by heaven, on behalf of which
the emperor rules. Laws attached to the celestial
orders comprise bonds subsisting between prince and
minister, father and son, younger and elder brother,
husband and wife, and mutual friends, which agree with
our five precepts and five objects of veneration. How
useful are the ordinances of heaven, derived from ours,
and consummated in union and reverence and perfect
harmony ! The decrees of heaven favour the excellent.
Heaven punishes the guilty according to our five penal

130 REFLECTIONS OK TBK

inflictions, and five kinds of transportations, O how
magnificent are the affairs of gorernment ! The perspi-
cacity and intelligence of heaven accord with the perspi-
cacity and intelligence of my people ; its intelligent fear
agrees with their illustrious veneration, and difiuses itself
through the upper and lower ranks of society. Oh, what
respect is due to officers of government !"

The reader has been detained longer on these transla-
tions than their intrinsic excellence perhaps would war-
rant; because, while the sentiments conveyed are of
remote origin, they support an immense fabric of political
power and social influence raised by the government of
China on the ruins of natural liberty, and cemented by
degrading superstitions, moral debasement, and mental
servitude, which mark the present condition of her mul-
titudinous inhabitants. If we ascribe any real existence
to the ancient chieftains who have passed under review,
they must be considered as belonging to the infantile
population of the world. Their system of instruction
bears characteristics of originality, both melancholy and
interesting. It is divested of all dependence on revealed
communications respecting the early state of man ; and
yet, amidst the vagaries of superstition and the seductions
of error, truth faintly indicates its native dignity and
majesty. The first remarkable point of attention is, a
selfish seclusion in which they enwrap themselves, without
a thought that other human beings might claim a kindred
origin, or that it was of any moment whence barbarians
had sprung, who occupy the outskirts of the celestial
territory. Their contemptuous sovereignty over all being
forbids admission to the principle that nations descended
from the same source must be equal in dignity of origin,

ANCIENT BISTORT OF CHINA. 131

and if now degraded in the scale of creation their pro-
genitors cannot but share the imputed debasement; or
that if of independent descent, which is more in accord-
ance with Chinese theory, it may, in all probability, be
equally honourable. Heaven and earth are immediately
concerned in their own origin, with which they identify
Ike commencement of human operations ; and the first
person to whom mortal reign is entrusted was mysteri-
ously united to the unknown something which produced,
pervades, and controls the visible traverse. Their doc-
trine of a First Cause seems to have given rise to the
idea of sovereignty in one person, or rather, was it not
invented to sanction his authority ? since he professes to
take heaven and earth as his pattern, and employs the
phrase " Father heaven," and " Mother earth," to denote
Ike conjoint sources of his power and influence, from
which he derives the appellation Heaven's Son as his
characteristic title. Heaven, according to this system, is
especially attentive to the conduct of human beings,
while its purposes may be changed, its decrees reversed,
and its determination to punish revoked by incessant
exertions of virtuous beings on earth in resolute perse-
vering penitence; but if justice with regard to great
criminals be long delayed, or not allowed to follow its
natural and righteous course, a way is equally opened for
the judgment of heaven to descend, as when distinguished
excellence is not adequately rewarded. Their idea of the
world, a term applied to their own territory, is that of a
family under the governance of one irresponsible head,
which constitutes the basis of their theory of government.
He is said to reign, either in conjunction with heaven, or
by its authority, or as its deputy to fulfil its commands,

k 2

132 CHRONOLOGY OF THE CHINESE

execute its penal decisions, and by his virtuous influence
sway the destinies of its subjects. The period which we
have been contemplating, includes what the Chinese
denominate the highest and upper antiquity, — two out of
three periods which come between the fabulous age and
that of Confucius : the first comprises the imperial heaven,
earth and man's reign, which extends to the times of
Fuh-he, who lived above eleven hundred and forty years
before Yaou's deluge ; the second, from Fuh-he to Yaou,
who flourished seventeen hundred years before Confucius,
whose age is the boundary of the third or last division of
antiquity, which preceded the Christian eera by five hun-
dred years. In this latter period the catastrophe of the
deluge occurred, from whose survivors a description of
it was transmitted by tradition to all parts of the world,
as we learn from nations early accustomed to record their
own origin and progress. Some expressions in the Shoo-
king are remarkably similar to those of the Mosaic
narrative : both accounts represent the flood as gradually
rising above the highest mountains. The Chinese, how-
ever, do not allude to the sources of this calamity, nor to
the resting-place of the people during the prevalence of
the waters. Yu — their Noah — is celebrated for his painful
and successful labour in directing the waters to their
proper channels, and laying out the country in districts
to be cultivated and taxed agreeably to the quality of the
Soil. Names are appended to the supposed scene of his
exertions with tedious minuteness; but no modern ob-
servations or researches can discover the locality of those
nine boundaries into which, according to ancient tradition,
he divided the empire. The term "nine regions," which is
still applied to the Chinese empire, has been derived,

DELUGE AND ITS EFFECTS. 133

together with the fiction of the actors in the scene, from
obscured remnants of scripture fact, disseminated by
Noah and his family among their descendants. Yu is
said to have been so intent upon his work, that during his
employment in adjusting the waters he thrice passed his
own door without entering it, and turned a deaf ear to the
cries of his son and the entreaties of his wife. He is
therefore celebrated in the writings of philosophers as a
pattern of self-denial. In the time of Yu wine was first
made by E-Teih ; but when Yu drank of it and relished
its flavour, he banished its maker, and prohibited the
luxury, remarking, that in future ages nations would be
ruined by it. "At this period heaven rained down gold
for three days:" this absurd statement as a grave histo-
rical fact probably took its rise from the element by
which Yu reigned, which was metal' or gold. He died
at the age of one hundred years.

• The following inferences seem to be fairly deducible
from the preceding statements.

First, irrespective of the absurd statements of the
fabulous sera, the Chinese monarchy is of very high an-
tiquity ; secondly, though the succession to the throne be
hereditary, an eminently virtuous subject was in ancient
times frequently preferred to a profligate heir; thirdly,
the practice of the sovereigns of that remote period, in
raising a successor to the throne during their own lifetime,
has been imitated in modern times, as, for example, by
Keen-lung, who, having reigned sixty-one years, resigned
the throne to its next heir ; fourthly, though the events
narrated above are no doubt indebted for many particulars
to the writers of later times, the sentiments and conduct
of those ancient chieftains have been revered in all sub-

134 INFERENCES FROM CHINE8B RBCORD8.

sequent ages, as models of virtuous government and
practice; fifthly, the tradition of the deluge, so nearly
resembling that of Moses in description and chronology,
corroborates our faith in the sacred narrative, and evinces
the high antiquity of Chinese records. Some have, indeed,
attempted to prove that the account in the Shoo-king
refers only to a local inundation produced by excessive
rains; but both natives and foreigners have been much
perplexed to explain its causes, and the means of removing
it ; moreover, it would be unlikely that such peculiar ex-
pressions should be applied to what, at least in ancient
times, was no uncommon occurrence, if nothing more were
intended by the writer than to describe a periodical over-
flow of some river. Sixthly, the Meaou-tsze, referred to
in the extracts from the Shoo-king, still exist in the heart
of China, occupying its mountains and fastnesses, whence
they occasionally issue to make irruptions on the inha-
bitants of the plain. Is not this a strong circumstance in
favour of the opinion that they are the aborigines ?

SECTION III.

THE THUS SECTS — SENTIMENTS ON THE FIRST CAUSE— NATURE OF TBEIA
DIFFERENT SYSTEMS — PRACTICAL INFLUENCE.

Fables, metaphysical disquisitions, and simple narrative,
are so blended together in Chinese histories, that it is
difficult to ascertain their respective limits. In the former
chapter we described ancient worthies, who have been held
in devout esteem from time immemorial through successive
ages, for the excellent principles they adopted for their own
guidance, and enforced on the observance of others. This
was evidently the golden age of the Chinese. Allusions
were there made to the First Cause, and to the origin of
the world, which will now be discussed.

The original, abstract, principle of causation, denomin-
ated Tae-keih, is represented in Chinese authors by a
circle, or by a circle enclosing a waving line from the top
to the bottom, which is also an ancient symbol of the
sun. When this principle was in motion, it produced a
male power, and when it was at rest a female power ; from
whose united operations four visible forms were generated,
which represent, by eight diagrams, innumerable combi-
nations and transmutations in nature, resembling the
Pythagorean system of accounting for the origin of the
universe. Tae-keih means the great limit, or extreme
principle of analysis, which is one and indivisible; yet

mvn ir irmnurmau ant

inly imuerry n mnnuDL won: ^e Go* of Dbrine

tErau •scene die ammiL ir iiriiiHTJg or

ay 'itaer vgdbi si
rf tie %zm ic

of Bityffiegnee or

kjKBnbifr met xSazaHD* to God in. bis revealed
tag- imm g ni& rf
are wkhoa* shadow of
fabric Trvth — §vpperted by the

ft* moral beastr. and dbdncwaed be the w i adu aa of its
communications the iinehajigeabtaiess of its purposes,
and the amplitude of its provision for nan as an immortal
being — is unrepresented, except in the fi ctions of a Tain
imagination, and the reasonings of debased intellect.
Holmes*, aac-h as it is described to be in tins svstem, is
destitute of living perfection, and unconnected with deeds
of infinite purity; consequently, it strikes no salutary
terror into the guilty mind. Justice, unattended with penal
sanctions, based on the known determination of the Judge
of all the earth to do right, excites no lively apprehension
of future retribution. Wisdom and power, limited to the
operation of mere abstract existences, bearing the name
without the substance of properties appropriate only to
the eternal God, furnish subjects of unintelligible decla-
mation to the ignorant, and of profound mysticism to
ifirjiiirinj: mind*, in which they are perplexed and con-
founder).

DUAL POWBR IN NATURE 137

The dual power, evolved from this original principle,
was the next order of existence generated, prior to the
production of all things. It was denominated Yin and
Yang, terms which signify male (Yang), and female (Yin),
14 light and darkness, perfection and imperfection, mani-
festation and obscurity, good and evil, the source of
existence and the cause of decay ;*' and may be said to
bear some resemblance to the two ancient principles in
nature, which the Manichceans recognized as the origin of
all the virtue and vice prevalent on earth. Other in-
fluences and acts, attributed to these primary energies,
are not dissimilar to those which the ancient Egyptians
ascribed to their two principal deities, Osis and Osiris*
These, it will be remembered, are appropriated by that
people to the sun and moon.* For if, as it has been
supposed, the Egyptians derived some of their immoral
practices, such as their incestuous marriages, from the
depraved example instituted by the gods, so it is equally
probable that many of the licentious abominations and
cruel practices of the Chinese are referrible to the sexual
intercourse alleged to subsist between this male and fe-
male power in nature; the result of whose conjoined
operations is not only seen in the productions, animate
and inanimate, of the air, the earth, and the sea, but,
moreover, in the influence which the theory exercises over
their whole social system. Every thing masculine is
invested with the highest excellence, every thing feminine
treated with the most contemptuous disdain. Arts, cere-
monies, accomplishments, and the ordinary intercourse of
life, ought to be regulated by this fancied two-fold divi-
sion of the Supreme Power. Printing uses its masculine

preceding chapter.

138 DUAL POWER IN NATURE.

and feminine letter according to prescribed rules. The
notes of music are divided into male and female, and re-
quire to be properly blended, according to the principles
of Yin and Yang, before their combination can produce
complete harmony. In the preparation of a feast the
respective pre-eminence and subordination of these powers
is distinguished, by the inferior dishes occupying the
place appropriated to Yin, and the superior that which
belongs to Yang. Passing the distinctions created by this
theory, to the prejudice of the female in favour of the
male among animals, its influence may be noticed as most
injurious to the feminine part of the human species. It
certainly countenances, if it did not originate, female
infanticide; for while the design to avoid the care and
expense of bringing up children may be considered as the
primary motive, yet why do not sons participate with
daughters in a common fate, if there be no assignable
ground of preference for one sex more than the other?
And where life is spared, the same sentiment dooms the
female to subjection and degradation, as possessed of
inferior powers of mind, and of immeasurably less import-
ance in the scale of being than man. This notion need
not excite much surprise, since the male power in nature
receives various designations descriptive of eminence, and
the female invariably those which denote inferiority. If,
for example, the term which denotes the male power be
supreme heaven, the counterpart to this will be subor-
dinate earth, as expressive of the female. The superior
of these powers, by whatever name it is distinguished,
rules in heaven and controls celestial objects, while the
inferior, which is the female, governs on earth and directs
terrestrial things. The term by which the Chinese de-

TRIAD POWER IK ONE ESSENCE. 139

signate the gods, spirits, and good angels, is said to be
the soul of the male power ; while that which distinguishes
the animating principle of the female, is applied to demons
and evil spirits. The same word Shin, when used to
denote a kind of ethereal essence, has its respondent
inferior element, denominated Ke, " breath or vapour."
Indeed, whatever exists in the universe is the property of
the one or other of these elementary powers, and has its
corresponding office in the social and physical economy.
This theory, moreover, affects the moral systems of the
Chinese, virtues and vices in their various classes being
arranged according to this fanciful division of the origin-
ating powers.

The theory of a triad power uniting in one essence to
create all things, and separating into distinct personages
successively to rule the world in its first ages, has exer-
cised considerable influence over the religious systems
now prevailing in China ; and why should it be thought
improbable that some at least of these notions, though
now enveloped in the grossest error, were originally de-
rived from revealed facts, through the darkened medium
of tradition? Pagan countries advanced beyond bar-
barism, embody superstitious tenets in their religious
code, varying in character according to the degree of
civilization and refinement to which they have attained*
In the absence of an infallible standard of faith, the prin-
ciples and precepts of which are recognized as altogether
obligatory, systems of restraint must be devised to aid
the authority of rulers, and secure the subordination of
subjects ; to attract the thoughtful few, who scrutinize the
causes of things, and satisfy the unthinking many, who seek
the gratification of sense, regardless whether those legends

140

principles of

The designation* nii7aw yflinrf, fJUkmt, and pmliticml,
applied to the pfferaufine forms of ^pnMiliun in
may serre to ponrt onl their distmctioms; a l th ou g h
of these appellations is ex rfm iie ly apumfiaie to any
of the Chinese systems, of which, it k wefl known, the
^three principal are, the sect of Reamm, the sect of Fmk,
and the sect of the Learned, Coiiracms's ethics are,
indeed, with propriety designated political ; but they also
involve pretensions to moral philosophy and metaphysical
learning. Buddhism patronises childish and absurd cere-
monies, but intermingles therewith the doctrines of the
sages. The sect of Reason, with a title which promises
exercise to metaphysical acumen, has its mystic fables
and topical deities to gratify the feelings of the people.
Since these sects are recognized by the state, and their
votaries constitute almost the entire mass of its subjects,
I cannot, perhaps, in pursuance of my plan, more advan-
tageously represent the moral and intellectual condition of
China, than by incorporating the floating sentiments of
tradition, on the three great powers of nature, now the
subjects of historic record, together with the opinions held
respecting each of these primary energies by the " Three
Sects," for the purpose of exhibiting at one view various
notions of Heaven as the First Cause, of Earth as the
second, and of Man as the third.

The sect of Taou, Reason, was founded by Laou-keun-
tsze, who flourished about Ave hundred years prior
to the Christian sera, and was contemporary with Con-
fucius. It uses remarkable language to indicate the origin
of its founder. He is described as the great, supreme,

THE 8RCT OF REASON. 141

three-fold source, consisting of three personages, of whom
the most honourable dwells in heaven bestowing happi-
ness ; the next in rank grants forgiveness of sin on earth ;
while the inferior rules the waters, and delivers from im-
pending calamities : yet these three sages are but one first
cause — that is, the one indivisible monad, to which we
have already referred, called Tae-keih. This triune
power presiding in heaven over assembled divinities and
rulers, the sun, moon, stars, and constellations, despatches
a celestial messenger to announce the pardon of sin, in-
finite happiness, and complete deliverance from evil, to all
who shall recite his precious name with many magnificent
epithets superadded. He is considered as the restorer of
reason, who has by incarnation assumed some form or
other in seven different periods, from the highest antiquity
down to the sera of his residence on earth, and subse-
quently as late as the sixth century. Other deities are
worshipped; such as the supreme ruler, the northern
emperor, the god of fire, the god of births; but the
principal divinities are the " three pure ones/' united in
one abstract essence, of which eternal reason is the basis
and characteristic. This principle resembles in several
particulars the A£yoc of the Greeks, as it has been ex-
plained by the school of Plato. It not only, in order of
existence, preceded the heavens and the earth, but is also
regarded as the creating source of matter ; and seems,
likewise, not dissimilar to the pervading principle of that
philosopher, which inheres in matter and animates living
beings. The Scripture reader will recognize in these
opinions remnants of revealed truth, obscured indeed and
mutilated by tradition as accumulating ages separated the
members of the human family from the only correct source

142 THS SECT OF FUH.

of information, but still not without traces of original
verity.

The sect of Fuh also recognizes " three precious ones,"
as the supreme object of adoration ; these are — the past,
the present, and the future; a sort of divided eternity,
deified without reference to personal attributes or perfec-
tions, either moral or natural, except infinite existence be
regarded as the essence of this three-fold period. It was
introduced from India about the close of the first century
after Christ ; but since it acknowledges gods many and
lords many, no light is reflected on the character and
communications of a Supreme Being. Its principal divi-
nities are goddesses; one of whom is represented with
many arms, indicative of her power to save ; another is
the patroness of childless women, and holds an infant
before her; a third superintends children who are ill of
the small-pox ; a fourth is the goddess of mercy, which is
in the highest degree popular; together with innumerable
other feigned deities, presiding over individual, local, and
national interests, all which combine to stifle the voice of
natural conscience, shroud the human understanding with
impenetrable darkness, and destroy those moral sensi-
bilities which might have been excited and cherished by
meditating on the works of creation, on the ways of
Providence, and on traditional information derived from
the original depositaries of God's will. The mysticism of
the former sect and the absurdities of this, are equally
erroneous; but the latter being more popular, possesses
greater power of doing mischief. No idea of God ap-
proaching to correctness has been retained, since the
outlines of truth, communicated by the immediate de-
scendants of Noah, were effaced from the minds of their

COVFUClUS's SYSTEM. 143

posterity ; nor, independently of Divine revelation, have
correct sentiments of God ever been acquired ; even where
reason, with all its boasted sufficiency of wisdom, has
been invoked as the tutelary deity. And if notions of
God worthy in some degree of his character and perfec-
tions be not impressed on the human mind, we look in
vain, not only for rational deportment from man towards
the Supreme Being, but also for suitable behaviour to his
feUow-man in the varied duties of life. The wisest pagan
nations afford convincing evidence of the truth of this
statement. Egypt, renowned throughout the ancient
world for its wisdom, the extent of which is noticed by
inspiration, multiplied its objects of worship from animals
and vegetables, until nature itself teemed with deities.
China, apart though it has long been from intercourse
with Christian countries — is thought by some to be a
model of excellence in its simple patriarchal worship;
but it has evidently been extolled without reason ; since
its paternal character, apparent in outward forms, is really
merged either in idolatrous superstitions or atheistical
materialism. Thus, in these two illustrious instances,
China and Egypt, wisdom with regard to the character of
the First Cause, has degenerated into folly of the most
unseemly kind, affording additional testimony to the im-
portant truth, that "the world by wisdom knew not
God."

The sentiments of Confucius, whose philosophy is usually
considered both as more rational and more practical than
that of Laou-tsze, with whom he was contemporary, are
very peculiar with regard to the First Cause, which he
variously designates reason, heaven, supreme ruler, su-
preme heaven, and heaven and earth. The indiscriminate

144 THEORIES ON TAOU — RSA90N.

application of these terms to widely different objects and
systems, creates considerable confusion in the mind of
the uninitiated reader. Taou, which may be called the
Logos of China, in addition to the sense already adverted
to, as belonging to the first of the three sects, is employed
by the Buddhists to point out a particular state of exist-
ence, relating to the metempsychosis, whether among
human beings or brutes. Confucius and his followers,
who constitute the sect of the learned, attribute more
epithets descriptive of an eternal being to Taou, than to
any other term by which the Chinese denote the first
cause. It is represented as eternal, unchangeable, creative,
omnipresent — so vast that it fills the universe, so minute
that it is contained in all things. It is the source of the
changes which occur in nature, and takes precedence of
heaven and earth; and in comparison with it not only
man, but these creative powers also, are liable to err, and
by their aberrations to violate its authority. In the
mundane system of the Chinese it is elevated into a
divinity, whence issued heaven, earth, man, and all natural
objects; still, however, it is not invested with personal
properties. The same word signifies a way or path, both
morally and physically, which, preceded by heaven
(heaven's path), indicates the Supreme Being's procedure
towards mankind, and conveys an idea approaching to
the Christian's notion of Divine Providence. This term
with the sense — method of access — ascribed to it, coupled
with its alleged prerogative as the source of all things,
animate and inanimate, indicating, as it must do, the seat
of vitality, the living energy itself, together with the sig-
nification of word } or medium of communication, expresses
a remarkable coincidence of properties appropriated by

THBORIB8 ON TAOU — REASON. 145

the Saviour to himself, or ascribed to him by his inspired
servants — " I am the way, the truth, and the life :" " In
the beginning was the word"

This word is used by the same school to indicate
doctrine — a system of metaphysical principles and moral
precepts — and in this sense generally stands connected
with le f which means reason, in its recondite, abstract,
divisible state; while taou denotes principles embodied
in actions and conduct, which are the result of a deliberate
operation of the understanding ; hence its appropriateness
to express the sense of the term doctrine or truth.

Confucius represents heaven as an object of supreme
veneration, which, according to popular opinion, bestows
blessings, and inflicts judgments, guides the steps of men,
and frustrates or promotes human designs, agreeably to
its sovereign counsels. But philosophical definitions by
later writers invest it with no other attribute than un-
created materialism, destitute of the intelligence necessary
to a sagacious mind or controlling agency, and diffused
throughout the universe as an indivisible principle, other-
wise called tae-keih, " the highest point ;" or woo-keih,
" no point " — the original limit beyond which the mind
cannot reach. It is also explained by U, alluded to above,
as an innate principle of primary matter, which when
organised is designated by sing, " nature." I never could
learn that attributes of wisdom, power, eternity, or immu-
tability, were applied to heaven ; although the sage says
he has long prayed to heaven, and describes an offence
against that power as taking away the resource of prayer
from the offender. What, then, it will be asked, is the
notion attached to heaven ? I should say, precisely the

146 NOTIONS OF TEEN — HEAYEN — A* THE

same as that attached to fate by the ancient Greek trage-
dians and philosophers.

A native commentator on the term, explains it by reason
— the innate principle of order inhabiting matter — synony-
mous with first cause. The sage considered himself as
employed by heaven to promulgate its sacred doctrines
throughout the universe ; and yet he seldom spoke of the
divine decrees, a future state, or religious worship. Heaven,
when used metaphysically, conveys a very different idea
from that of the firmament, with which,. however, it is
often confounded. Its extension as a canopy over the
earth, in conjunction with which it is worshipped, is the
probable reason of its alleged ubiquitous influence, its
supreme honour, and unequalled dominion. " It is im-
proper," says a disciple of Confucius, " to accuse nature
of wanting intelligence, and equally incorrect to identify
its mental operations with those of man. Who can ima-
gine that a person is appointed, on the part of heaven,
to judge crimes, and determine their punishment ? Yet
who will have the hardihood to deny the exercise of ab-
solute control ?" To an anxious inquirer, whether the
azure heavens exercise supreme, intelligent government; or
the First Cause — devoid of a designing mind — be merely
a principle of order inferred from tracing things up to
their origin, such philosophy presents no satisfactory
solution. Notwithstanding the indefinite sentiment enter-
tained of heaven, the Chinese insist much on its absolute
power in ordaining their present condition, and controlling
their future destiny; the inexorable operation of whose
decrees are pleaded in apology for guilty indifference to
the life and property of a neighbour, which is suffered to

SUPRBMB POWEK III TnB UKIVBBSB. 147

parish in the flames or in the water without effort to save
it. Life and death, riches and honours, depend, it is
averred, on the decree of heaven, which, like wise sayings
of great men, is an object of profound veneration with
virtuous minds. Confucius, on occasion of the death of
a favourite pupil, exclaimed, " Heaven has ruined me !
Heaven has ruined me !" Mencius, in reply to an in-
quirer, who asked whether Yaou did not confer the govern-
ment of the empire on his successor, denied that it was
in his power to do so, when the following conference
ensued between them, in which the philosopher is re-
spondent. "Who, then, disposed of it?" "Heaven."
** In what manner? with reiterated distinct commands ? "
u No : Heaven revealed its will not in words, but by con-
duct and circumstances." " What do you mean ?" " The
emperor had the prerogative to introduce, or recommend,
a person to heaven, but had no power to determine its
choice : heaven, however, approved Shun, and the people
unanimously received him." "How does that appear?"
44 When he presided over the imperial sacrifices, the gods
graciously accepted his offerings in token of heaven's
approbation ; and when he assumed the direction of public
afiairs, tranquillity prevailed among the people indicative
of their good will : it was not, therefore, the emperor, but
heaven and man who had the disposal of the vacant
throne." Hence while heaven is appealed to first in a
system of universal government directed by this power in
conjunction with man, the latter in reality takes prece-
dence, according to the sentiment generally acknowledged
—"the voice of the people is the voice of God." More-
over, it is said, " Heaven hears and sees as the people
hear and see ;" on which passage a commentator remarks,

l2

148 DIFFERENT TERMS TO DESIGNATE

"This is necessarily the case since heaven is without
figure."

To every one acquainted with Chinese sentiments on
the First Cause, it is evident that the terms Shang-te,
"Supreme Ruler," used in the Shoo-king, and Teen,
" Heaven/' have the same meaning, so far as either is
reducible to any definite conception. This opinion is cor-
roborated by the following passage from the She-king,
the most ancient collection of odes extant in the Chinese
language ; it is quoted in the works of Mencius, a part
of the celebrated " Four Books : " — " The descendants of
the Shang dynasty numbered more than one hundred
thousand persons; Shang-te, 'the Supreme Ruler,' decreed
their subjugation by Chow; for heaven's decree is not
invariable : that is, is not always in favour of one family. "

In this extract, " Supreme Ruler" and " Heaven" are
used, as synonymous terms, to point out the all-controll-
ing energy to which the actions of individuals, and the
fate of nations, are subjected; which energy seems in
many respects equivalent to the Jupiter Optimus Maximus
of the ancients, both in the prerogatives it assumes and
the attributes with which it is invested. If there be
properties attributed to it at all descriptive of the cha-
racter of the Supreme Being as he is revealed in
the Scriptures, they are those of the god of providence ;
albeit in connection with this idea other sentiments are
entertained which nullify the conception of an almighty,
ever-living, unchangeable existence. According to the
meaning of the words " Supreme Ruler," the prerogatives
of this personage are restricted to the single act of ruling
the world. But Shang-te is the same as teen, " heaven ;"
and teen 9 " heaven," is synonymous with le, " principle ;"

ONB FIRST CAUSE. 149

while le, u principle," according to Chinese philosophers,
is but another name for the abstract essence, tae-heih —
the anima mundi of the Platonists — which originated,
pervades, and animates the material universe. Now things
that are equal to the same are equal to one another;
wherefore, since Shang-te is synonymous with heaven,
and heaven is explained by le> Shang-te must also be the
same as le; whence this epithet, supposed to be descrip-
tive of the true God, and to be derived by tradition from
the patriarchs, is in reality no more than a personification
of the invisible principle, le or tae-heih, according to the
opinions of modern commentators on the subject. Again :
heaven, earth, and man, are denominated san-tsae, three
powers— -of which this one principle innate in matter is
the essence ; and from the language of native authors, as
well as the opinions of foreign Chinese scholars, I am
strongly inclined to think that Shang-te and teen are but
different terms for the same mysterious Supreme, who
•ways the destinies of mortals, whose name is used to
overawe the public mind for political purposes, and who
» to be approached but seldom — as on great national
occasions — lest the people should contract too great
familiarity with such august titles, and cease to reverence
them. Confucius admonishes his disciples to treat the
gods with respect, and to keep at a distance from them.

It has been common for the emperors of China, in
modern as well as ancient times, who are arrived at a
peculiar epoch of their history, or have received marks
of celestial favour in a lengthened and felicitous reign, to
offer solemn sacrifices to the Supreme Ruler, the azure
heavens, the earth, and the spirits of departed ancestors,
all which deities share equal honours, though precedence

160 IMPERIAL SACRIFICES

is given to Shang-te, under the pretext of evincing their
gratitude, and avowing their dependence for the future,
but rather to avail themselves of the popular influence
acquired by such an appeal to the prejudices and super*
stitions of their subjects. The coronation of a young
prince, and the celebration of a jubilee at the close of fta
aged emperor's reign, are occurrences befitting munificent
sacrifices, and solemn exercises of public and national
devotion. Bbth events happened in the life of Keen*
lung, whose conduct furnishes an illustration of the maut
ner in which these festivities are observed. At his own
coronation, while burning incense and silently praying to
the high heavens, he made avow, that since his ancestor
Kang-he — his immediate predecessor but one*— had
reigned sixty-one years, so he, if he should be permitted
to reign sixty, would then transfer the crown to his heii*.
Accordingly, at the winter solstice, during the great sa-
crifice, the emperor says he prayed to the Supreme Ruler;
and mentioning the name of his intended heir, desired
that if he were not fit for the throne, judgments from
heaven might fall upon him, and another selection be
made. He announced his intention to his deceased ant
cestors .also, who, he imagines, look down from heaven
and observe what is doing on earth. The heaven he
prayed to, and the heaven where his ancestors are sup-
posed to dwell, though the same word is used, seem to
have proceeded from different ideas in the emperor's
mind, the one inferior to the other ; but heaven, supreme
ruler, and ancestors* are all treated as if possessed of
equal powers ; and, indeed, his holy mother, then an old
woman, is placed as high as Shang-te; for he told her
also of liis intention, and then, probably. to enable the

TO THE FIRST CAUSE. 151

drily to decide, reported her answer to him. He was
advised by his attendants not to raise his son to the
throne during his own lifetime ; but his prayers, his vows,
his secret intercourse with high heaven, the supreme
ruler, and the souls of his ancestors, determined him to
carry his purpose into effect.

I have previously adverted to two meanings of the word
teen— that of " material heavens," and "supreme pre-
siding power," — both which are connected in this passage
with a third — " the supposed residence of departed spirits/'
The difficulty of attaching precise notions to such terms
in native authors arises from their being ambiguously used
in a special sense, when the context would seem to indi-
cate the ordinary signification. It appears, however, that
the term Shang-te, in its application to the invisible power
by which the affairs of the universe are controlled, is
borrowed from its common use to denote supreme autho-
rity and government on earth ; and that teen, suggested
by the overshadowing material heavens, is appropriated
to the same invisible Supreme, probably because the works
of creation inspire the thoughtful beholder with impres-
sions of an existent, eternal godhead. This sentiment
would be especially produced by the celestial portion of
the divine workmanship, to the study of which the
Chinese, as well as the Arabians, Chaldeans, and Egyp-
tians, have been remarkably addicted from the earliest
ages. For this reason also it is that astrology — the pre-
tended science of the stars — coupled with the assumed
decision of a numerical fate, has enthralled such masses
of intellectual being through so many ages. Kung-ming,
a celebrated personage in the civil wars of the three king-
doms, — the third century after Christ, — was much devoted

152 ASTROLOGICAL FHAYERS NUMERICAL FATE—

to the study of astrology, by the aid of which he foretold
his own death during his last illness. He nevertheless,
having lighted lamps within his tent, in a certain number
and order corresponding to the appearances of the hea-
venly bodies, composed a prayer on the occasion, which
he addressed to heaven and the stars for the purpose of
reversing its decrees and protracting his life. It was as
follows: "Born into the world in times of anarchy, I
would gladly have remained till old age secluded amidst
forests and fountains of water ; but called forth by fre-
quent visits from the emperor, I did not presume to
decline my utmost exertions in his service; I am appre-
hensive that my life is now drawing to a close, and have
therefore reverently written a short prayer to announce
these things to the azure canopy of heaven ; and, pros-
trate, hope that heaven will graciously how down, look
and listen, and bend circumstance*, that the number of
my days may be increased, and that I tnay recompense
my sovereign, save his people, and render the house of
Hau perpetual. I dare not orl'er irreverent prayers, but
am impelled by the most acute and sincere feelings."
Mining finished his prayer he remained prostrate on the
earth till morning, and shortly after died. But notwith-
standing the ill success of his petition, and that it is the
popular belief of the Chinese that death is pre-ordained
by a fixed numerical fate, they still arrange lamps corre-
sponding to the stars of heaven, and have recourse to
spells and charms in imitation of this celebrated indi-
vidual. During the commotions in which he lived, there
wore, according to the records of those periods, nine
ellipses of the sun, seven rending* of mountain^ eleven
earthquakes, four extensive inundations, two famines in

SIGNS OP HEAVEN. 153

which the people devoured each other, and twenty dis-
turbances on the frontier. Celestial phenomena, deno-
minated "signs from heaven/' are considered as inter-
preters of the divine will, which enable the initiated to
read the destinies of mortals with infallible certainty.
The eclipse of the sun is supposed to indicate want of
virtue in the monarch, and the necessity of close self-
examination. An eclipse of the moon should suggest
inquiry into the nature of public punishments inflicted on
criminals, whether they are not lighter than justice de-
mands; for, according to the sentiments of some Chinese
emperors and courtiers, heaven will sooner be offended
by an infliction below than above the standard of equity ;
although there is often much parade of the emperor's
clemency, both in passing sentence on a criminal and
carrying it into execution.* An eclipse of both these
heavenly bodies occurred in the first month of the sixtieth
year of Keen-lung's reign, which, notwithstanding the
emperor's conviction that " eclipses take place in regular
order, and may be calculated thousands of years before,"
he is rather inclined to regard as an extraordinary event
Reasons derived from political considerations, and the
appearance of the heavens, are found commingled in the
conduct of the imperial government, which savours more
of dexterity in accommodating itself to the predilections
of the people than of faithfulness even to its own limited
convictions of duty towards a higher power.

Heaven and earth are the most common deities invoked

* For example, when a criminal is about to suffer decapitation at Canton,
be b made to kneel with hia face towards the north, that is, the place of the
emperor's residence, and (kau *e*y ktrang te teih ytum) thank his imperial
clemency lor inflicting fatherly chastisement so mercifully on so undutifal a

.HOMBTAN AND

seventh century, where their sect flourished— especially
during the thirteenth — until its decline and fall in the
fifteenth or sixteenth century. But as Dr. Milne justly
remarks: "The Nestorians, according to Dr. Mosheim,
and other ecclesiastical historians, must have been in
China for a period of more than eight hundred years ;
and it is a singular circumstance, that if they really were
there for so great a length of time, Chinese history never
mentions them." Since the Chinese mention the Budd-
hists, the Mahometans, and the Roman Catholics, it is
certainly reasonable to expect that the Nestorians, occu-
pying so prominent a position in the country during several
centuries, would also attract the attention of its historians
and philosophers, more especially as Choc-foo-tsze and
other eminent writers lived near the time of their greatest
alleged prosperity. Native authorities, however, preserve
the most entire silence on the subject; whence it is
doubtful whether this sect ever existed in that region of
the world.

Mahometanisin was introduced into China about the
ninth century; the disciples of which, since lliey arc
zealous opponents of idolatry, would inculcate the wor-
ship of one God. Its followers occupied the mathematical
deportment at court for three hundred years, until the fall
of the Ming dynasty — the last Chinese family that sat on
the throne — and the usurpation of the Tartars. But little
light has been thrown on the general question of the
Divine existence by the operations of this sect, who,
however, use the term Choo, " Lord," to denote the Su-
preme Being, whom they declare to be only one — not the
first of a scries, hut separate and distinct — without like-
ness, manner, or mode, inconi parable, unequalled in nnik

I

CHRISTIAN TERMS FOR OOD. 157

or state of being. In the north of China there are still
several cities inhabited by the disciples of Islamism, re-
specting whom it may be affirmed, that, so far as any
beneficial influence has been exercised, they might as well
have been left to their own misguided reasonings; the
introduction of this system having only involved them in
deeper perplexity and error.

The Roman Catholics first communicated correct senti-
ments on the existence of Ood to the Chinese empire,
which they entered in the sixteenth century, with a zeal
and determination that no obstacle could withstand, to
plant the standard of the cross within its territories, and
subdue its millions to the obedience of the Romish faith.
The designation for the Supreme Being which they finally
adopted, and which now characterizes their system in
China, is " Heaven's Lord."

Since that period Protestant missionaries have trans-
lated the whole of the Scriptures into the language of the
Chinese, who have now an opportunity of comparing their
views of the First Cause with the doctrine of Divine
Revelation on this all-important topic.

From the preceding remarks it would appear that the
application of the terms Shang-te and Heaven to a supe-
rior power has been derived from their use to denote
supreme authority on earth. It is well known that the
Chinese government affects to be a transcript of the
celestial orders; the combined influence of which its
functionaries are said to represent, in the discharge of
their respective duties. Action and re-action of sentiment
is thus produced. On the one hand, superstitious preju-
dices are invoked to ensure the subordination of the people
to their rulers ; on the other, respect for the prevailing

168 CHINESE AND PTOLEMAIC

superstition is upheld by an appeal to the framework of
civil society, as affording tolerance to the principle of one
presiding, deity, aided by the authority of numerous infe-
rior gods. Wherefore the infidelity of the sceptic in
religion, according to Chinese notions, is silenced by re-
ference to the existing order of civil government; and the
political anarchist is made ashamed of his turbulence by
an appeal to the. authoritative, example of the heavenly
bodies, the harmony of whose operations bespeaks the
wisdom of a system of political and moral control founded
on so illustrious a model. Chinese authorities, it must be
confessed, have always been very careful publicly to. ac-
knowledge their dependence on a Supreme Power for
military successes as well as civil tranquillity: hence
Keen-lung, one of the most celebrated emperors of the
present dynasty, having subjugated a Tartar tribe, raised
a stone tablet at E-le, where he had fixed the seat of
the local government, and inscribed on it the following
couplet : —

^ z m *§ % Am m £T ^ % &

The tree which Heaven plants, though man throw it down, cannot be

uprooted:
The tree which Heaven casts down, though man re-plant it, will never
grow.

This term, heaven, however, is far too complex in its im-
port to express, without confusion, the simple idea of God ;
for it denotes the material heavens, which, in conformity
to the Ptolemaic system, are divided into ten different
strata, of which the third stratum is the dwelling-place of
the goddess of love; the ninth is the primum mobile,
which carries the other eight along with it ; the tenth is

SYSTEMS — IDOLATRY. 169

the dwelling-place of the Great Ruler, and of all the gods
and saints who are tranquil and unmoved. Choo-foo-tsze
calls it " the hard shell heaven/' which comprehends the
inferior heavens, and controls the universe. True, heaven
is sometimes represented as intelligent, impartial, just,
and merciful, to which, however, divine attributes and
personal perfections are not ascribed.

It seems that the Chinese early admitted the notion
that provinces, districts, cities, towns, villages, streets,
shops, families, and sepulchres, require the presidency of
a distinct divinity; that hills and vales, streams and
fountains, fire and water, the sea and the air, with the
more subtile parts of aerial matter, cannot perform their
functions in the economy of nature and providence with-
out the inspiring influence of local genii ; and that births
and deaths, wealth, bodily enjoyment and long life,
together with the means of acquiring all desirable bles-
sings, need the superintendence and sanction of individual
deities to secure human happiness.

Idolatry, though not generally prevalent till the intro-
duction of Buddhism in the first century of our aera, was
first introduced during the Shang dynasty, more than a
thousand years prior to that period, by Woo-yih, who,
having made idols, employed persons to push them along,
and thereby gave offence to real celestial beings, for which
he was struck dead by thunder. An image of a man was
also made by Te-yih, to represent the gods of heaven.
The origin of idolatry, therefore, preceded by several
centuries the sect of Fuh, which is now its principal
patron.

Having endeavoured to point out the notions of the
Chinese on the first of the three powers in nature con-

160 THE SECOND POWER IN THE UNIVERSE.

nected with their metaphysical speculations on the origin
of all things, it will devolve on me now to show their
physical theories on the formation of the earth, and the
use they make of this system in their social habits : — to
discuss the properties of the second power in the universe,
and its practical influence.

The contrast between heaven and earth is very great ;
for earth is represented as a scene in which " truth and
falsehood, right and wrong, are blended together without
distinction ; while in heaven every thing is most clearly
discriminated." This sentiment is inscribed on the gate
of a temple at Canton, the overseer of which pays to the
government a sum equal to a thousand pounds sterling;
and it is said recovers it again with a profit in the course
of two or three years, by selling candles and other things
to the worshippers. It is, nevertheless, one of the su-
preme powers to which homage is due ; and libations are
poured out in grateful acknowledgment of plenty.

When the original breath or vapour of the universe was
first divided, the solid, polluted, and opaque parts became
" mother earth," which assumed the power of controlling
and arranging all creatures. Imperial Heaven and Queen
Earth are regarded by the Emperor of China as his pro-
genitors. Prayers are to be addressed to these powers to
invoke their favour.

Chinese writers on the theory of the earth maintain
that there are five original elements, whose names and
order are, water, fire, wood, metal, earth, of which the
last occupies the centre of a circle described by the other
four : the first two take precedence of the rest, both on
account of superior importance and priority of existence.

Moses, in describing the creation, mentions water as

PROCESS OF CREATION. 161

the first element, brought into operation by the Divine
Being : " And the earth was without form, and void, and
darkness was upon the face of the deep ; and the Spirit
of God moved upon the face of the waters." Water is
also the first element in the mundane system of the
Chinese. According to their philosophy, when heaven
and earth were in a chaotic state, before a separation had
taken place between them, there existed only two ele-
ments, which may represent the chaos and light of Moses;
these are water, the sediment of which became earth ; and
fire, whose more subtile parts ascended and became wind,
halo, thunder, lightning, suns, stars, and other objects of
similar properties : a system slightly resembling the sa-
cred writers, which divides the water into upper and
lower, by an intervening firmament, when the waters
below are congregated in one place and dry land appears ;
but the Chinese do not mention by what power the lighter
were separated from the grosser elements, nor how the
mass, which was originally soft, became hard. Their
theory is illustrated by resemblance to the agitations of
water which groups of hills present when viewed from a
distant eminence, and by the effect of tides in drifting
sands. The orbicular movement of the heavens preserves
the position of the earth, which it is supposed, were this
revolution to cease, would instantly sink into annihilation.
The circular motion of heaven and earth in creation is
likened to the upper stone in a mill, which revolves with-
out intermission ; and the production of creatures, to the
motion of the middle stone, from which coarser and finer
materials are thrown out. There is, moreover, a popular
notion current in China of eiijht consecutive days in
creation, on each of which, after the opening of heaven

M

162 CONSECUTIVE DAYS IN CREATION.

and earth, fowls, dogs, swine, sheep, cows, horses, man, and
grain, were successively produced. It is possible this
theory owes much to taste ; since the three first produc-
tions are delicacies prohibited to young persons by Con-
fucius's rules of filial piety, lest there should be insufficient
nourishment for the aged. But amid great darkness and
confusion, some likeness is traceable to sacred story; in-
asmuch as animals were made before man, and successive
days of creation are distinctly recognized in this system ;
which, however, extends the period two days beyond that
of Moses, and contains no allusion to the inhabitants of
the waters. Moreover, the productions of the earth, which
God created first, stand last in this arrangement. Hence
it appears man was created on the seventh day, which in
the first month of the year is considered by the Chinese
as man's day, on which and the day following they will
not sweep their houses, " to avoid the allusion of sweep-
ing man and his food to destruction."*

No sabbath is observed by the Chinese ; nor is it inti-
mated in their divisions of time. Dr. Morrison, noticing
the fact, remarks: — "Those from whom the Chinese
descended separated before its institution, and hence a
sabbath is not observed among the Chinese. This idea
is submitted as a probable solution of the difficulty which
exists in accounting for the Chinese having no sabbath, if
the observance of that day was commanded at the crea-
tion of our first parents. For the argument in favour of
the opinion that the sabbath was first appointed in the
wilderness, at Mount Sinai, see Paley's Moral Philo-
sophy."+ With due deference to such an authority as

* Sec Morrison's Dictionary, Vol. I. Part I. page 579.
f See Morrison's View of China, page 52.

NO SABBATH OBSERVED IN CHINA. 163

Paley, I profess I cannot, on scriptural grounds, admit
the soundness of his argument, and am therefore unpre-
pared to accede to the hypothesis of Dr. Morrison. If
the Chinese, as some not improbably suppose, were ori-
ginally a colony from Egypt, their early separation from
the rest of mankind would account for such confused
stories as plainly relate to Scripture facts ; and obviate
difficulties, in admitting the institution of the sabbath to
be coeval with creation, which arise from want of tradi-
tional testimony, or presumptive proof in present customs
and manners among the same people. It cannot, indeed,
be surprising, that idolaters, who soon began to multiply
after the Flood, should lose, in natural divisions of time,
created by alternations of day and night, and lunar and
solar revolutions, a conventional period, whose preserva-
tion would only remind them of principles and practices
human nature has always been prone to forget. If some
nominal Christians, educated in observance of the sabbath
from infancy, can readily cease to reverence its sacred
ordinances, when transplanted to Pagan countries ; need
the obliteration of this hallowed institution from heathen
minds,, thousands of years after its first establishment,
excite astonishment, or throw suspicion on its venerated
antiquity ? We must either suppose that God concealed
all knowledge of the stupendous work of creation
from the antediluvians and patriarchs, or allow that it is
possible for their posterity to forget divine ordinances in
quest of worldly gratifications. But to whom did Jehovah
Utter the sentiments recorded by Moses,* except to our
first parents on the day after his works were ended ? and
why did the division of time into weeks obtain which was

* Stc Genwb ii. 1—3.
M 2

164 HO SABBATH OBSERVED IB CHIBA.

known to Noah,* as appears from his sending the dove
oat of the ark at successive periods of seven days, when
no natural phenomena pointed it oat, if it had not been
derived from the words of sabbatical institution uttered
at the beginning of the world ? As well might we argue,
that because the Chinese entertain erroneous notions of the
creation, the earth was not framed till the Pentateuch was
written, as infer the original institution of the sabbath in
the wilderness from the fact of its absence from their code
of sacred observances, or its omission from their systems
of chronology. The fourth commandment, which assigns
the rest of God after the creation, as a reason for enacting
the law of the sabbath, and enforces its solemn obligation
on the Israelites, by motives arising out of their recent
deliverance from Egypt, will equally account for the want
of a sabbath among the Chinese, whether as re-organizing
an ancient institution or establishing one heretofore un-
known ; because if they, whose progenitors lived nearest
to the source of true religion, and preserved its elements
and forms for the longest period, now required the re-
publication of a principal ordinance, is it matter of wonder,
which bears a doubtful aspect on the doctrine of a
sabbath from the beginning, that its observance should be
unknown to the ceremonies of a people, from whose minds
every correct impression of truth has long been obliter-
ated ? Suppose Moses had designed to institute the ob-
servance of a sabbath among the Egyptians, would not
their estranged condition have justified a wide departure
from the manner adopted towards Israel ? In one case
he roust address a people among whom no trace of such
ordinance remained, who would therefore need all the

* See Genesis viii. 15.

DURATION OF THE UNIVERSE. 165

formalities of an original enactment; in the other, he
would appeal to those who had known the law, but had
not accurately kept it, and therefore required it to be re-
instated in ancient authority, with such additional sanc-
tions as altered circumstances demanded. China is in the
former predicament ; no wiser on account of Mosaic in-
stitutes, because, as it may be presumed, of her distance
from the scene of divine revelations, and sharing in all
the disabilities resulting from the gradual but early loss
of truth in patriarchal times, which was handed down
orally, without any theocratic system like that of Moses,
to uphold its rites and ordinances in their pristine in-
tegrity.

With regard to the origin and duration of the universe,
some Chinese philosophers think that it has been preceded
by a similar system ; an idea which, considering how
many thousand years the present state is supposed to
have existed, approximates that of the eternity of matter ;
that though not in itself indestructible, it is liable to be
reduced again to chaos, from which a new organization
will hereafter arise. But while nothing short of the
highest point to which human wickedness can be carried,
will involve the possibility of its destruction, and the an-
nihilation of its occupants, animate and inanimate, still
such a state of impiety and moral degradation is possible ;
so that creation, destruction, and reproduction, in alter-
nate succession for ever, is the conclusion to which this
theory leads ; a sentiment in some respects not dissimilar
to the meaning convey ed in the following proverb —
" When at the utmost extremity, a change must be ef-
fected :" which signifies, that prosperity not only in the
course of events will probably precede, but must inevitably

166 THE THIRD POWER IN THE UNIVERSE.

generate misfortune; and that calamities, on the other
hand, are agents under the power of a similar necessity to
produce happiness ; whence moral delinquency has power
not only to dissolve the present social system, but, more-
over, to destroy the material fabric of the universe.

The five elements, so disposed that earth occupies the
centre, exhibit a model to which men and things in varied
positions are made conformable. The five antediluvian
emperors, celebrated in ancient story, seem naturally re-
ferrible to this number and its properties ; especially since
one reigns by wood, another by fire, a third by earth, a
fourth by metal, and a fifth by water. Then there are
five human relations, and five constant virtues ; five ranks
of nobility; five points — east, west, south, north, and
centre, evidently arranged according to the supposed order
of the elements ; as are likewise household gods, which
occupy the four corners and middle of the house ; the five
tastes ; five colours ; five viscera, all which not only con-
form to the number, but are in some degree under the
influence of those original materials.

Such is the general account Chinese philosophers give
of our planet, with its correlative properties and influ-
ences ; from which, no doubt, the title " mother earth "
has originated.

The last division of this subject is man, whom we are to
contemplate in the light which Chinese writers reflect on
his origin and ultimate destiny, together with his present
relations, domestic, social, and political. Topics, already
discussed, have rendered partial tribute to this, in passing;
but we design more especially to ascertain the sentiments
of Chinese on the human species, and their counsel to
man under moral and sacred responsibilities, whom we

THEORY OF THE CREATION OF MAN. 167

have seen theoretically dividing sovereign and creative
honours with heaven and earth, but practically overruling
their decisions. What, then, are the notions entertained
of this important personage? how is he treated? and
whither, in his earthly migrations, is he constantly tend-
ing? Chinese authors allege that he is the product of
the earth 9 which is under the power of a physical necessity
to sustain him : — " Earth produced man, and earth must
support him." He is the soul of the universe : an expres-
sion which denotes the spiritual or intellectual part of
creation, the very energy of heaven and earth's creating
power; resulting from the intercourse of the male and
female principle ; congregating in himself the united in-
fluence of demons and gods; together with the subtile
matter of the five elements.

From the time Yin and Yang united, and the five ele-
ments were intermingled in the centre of the universe,
moisture and heat operated on each other and produced
an intelligent being, who, as he gazed upon the heavens,
saw a golden blaze of light dart from a star and fall to
the earth. He approached the phenomenon, and per-
ceived an animated creature of the same species as him-
self. It cried out, " The wings have long embraced you ;
on the breaking forth of the fructifying principle, I knew
that you had entered into the world ; and then, plucking
plants, made garments to cover the inferior parts of the
body/' Having bestowed the appellation " Imperial re-
verence/* it informed him of the manner of creation ; of
the division of the heavens and the earth ; of the Yin and
Yang ; of the separation of darkness from light ; and that
all things were produced from an egg first formed in the
water; that there were four other human beings made,

168 PHILOSOPHICAL THEORIES ON MAN.

at the four points of the compass, each of whom, when
the golden-coloured personage disappeared, flew to the
spot from a different quarter : the first from the north,
" son of the essence of water ;" the second from the south,
" son of the essence of red earth ;" the third from the east,
" superintendent of wood ;" the fourth, " golden mother,"
from a paradisiacal mountain in the west. These five
persons obtained out of an immense crucible, by chemical
process, a male and a female, from whom, through the
essential influence of the sun and moon, human beings
descended, who gradually filled the earth. His " Impe-
rial reverence " directed the dispersion of the first families,
and supplied them with rafts to cross the seas and rivers,
to whatever place the wind might drive them. These
sentiments are entertained by the sect of Taou, which is
called the philosophical sect of China.

From these legends, sufficiently indicative of tradition
derived from Scripture, and prevailing among almost all
nations, we pass on to sentiments respecting the body
and the soul of man. The body is a world in miniature,
all whose members act in due subordination to their imme-
diate superiors. It has five officers, arranged according to
the five constituent elements of nature, which enter into the
physical and moral systems, and control the superstitious
theories of the Chinese. The functions of these officials
are as follow, and agree, except one, to those of the
organs of sense : the eye, which presides over objects of
vision, and is called the inspecting and investigating
officer ; the ear, pre-eminent in sounds, is designated the
distinguisher ; the nose, to which the faculty of smelling
has been assigned, is appointed judge and discriminator ;
the mouth is the issuing and receiving officer ; and the

OPINIONS OF THE BUDDHISTS ON MAN. 169

eyebrows are the preservers of long life : it is supposed,
that a strong, bushy eyebrow indicates longevity, and
hence the importance attached to it ; but what claim it
has to be considered as one of the organs of sense, it is
rather difficult to decide.

Opinions expressed by ethical writers differ from those
entertained by the religious sect, with regard to the value
of the body, and its proper mode of treatment. The
Buddhists speak of it most contemptuously : " It is at
best," they say, "but a loathsome bag:" — a sentiment
probably generated by the successive transmigrations to
which, it is thought, one soul may be subjected. Since
the body is a mere vehicle of preparation to the spirit for
its higher destinies, without any share in the enjoyments
secured by a triumphant course of virtue, it is necessarily
degraded far below the dignity ascribed to the immaterial
and immortal part. It is, however, honoured more highly
than animals; which, according to the notions of this sect,
are also receptacles of souls sent back from Hades in
fulfilment of judicial decrees awarded to them in different
halls of judgment, through which they pass to undergo
the ordeal instituted for human beings in these invisible
regions. But though it stands first in the class, it is
associated with beasts, birds, fishes, and insects, as a
material habitation for the soul unworthy to be admitted
into paradise, in whose honours, even when finally ran-
somed by a meritorious career on earth, the body, doomed
with brutes to annihilation, can never share. On this
system it would be difficult to ascertain how many bodies
are required for one soul, or in what part of the animal
creation these migratory spirits which have re-entered the
world are now sojourning : re-union between the same soul

170

THE CONFUCIAN NOTIONS OF THE BODY.

and body in a future state seems never to be contemplated :
indeed, it involves a physical impossibility.

The Confucian system, by reason of its deep veneration
for filial piety, is most solicitous to honour the body. To
treat it with ignominy, wounds the reputation and feelings
of parents, who are the instruments of its existence; but
to lavish praises upon and almost adore it, is quite con-
sistent with theories which hesitate to admit, if they do
not positively deny, the immortality of the soul. A dis-
ciple of Confucius, drawing near to death, uncovered his
body, to show by its perfect condition the extent of his
filial piety, but indicated no apprehension of the continued
existence of his soul in another state. The theories of
this sect well accord with human nature. Nourishment
of the body, necessary to its wants and grateful to its
feelings, is not only a natural but sacred obligation,
performed under the pleasing impression that honour is
thereby reflected on parents and ancestors, the merit of
which will be rewarded with the homage of admiring pos-
terity in life, and by sacred offerings after death.

Injunctions to preserve the body are not, therefore,
avowedly based on selfish fear of pain occasioned by neg-
lect, but on sacred duties arising out of the filial and
paternal relations. Voluptuousness is not professedly
encouraged ; but all ceremonies, whether religious or civil,
social or domestic, whether applied to living beings, dumb
idols, or the spirits of dead men, begin and end with
feasting.

Incpiisitive nations, accustomed to reflect on man's
constitution and destiny, naturally speculate on his mode
■ ■I im-i. noe oftor ili^ath, and the enjoyment or sufferings
"t .1 Alton itate. CMmh kkaoriu with ragud to ipiriti

THBORIB8 OK THE HUMAN SPIRIT. 171

are gloomy and uncertain. They have been generated
from notions of the two original principles in nature,* as
it appears from the terms Ling and Hwan, which they em-
ploy to designate the soul ; of which Ling is defined to
be the subtile, ethereal part of the feminine power, and
Hwan the spiritual part of the male energy, which resides
in the liver during the continuance of physical life, and
constitutes the shade or manes when separated from the
body by death. Another designation, answering to the
word spirit, is Pih, which denotes the spiritual part of
the feminine energy in nature. It is the sentient principle,
or animal soul, that resides in the lungs during life, but
is dissipated at death. Superior esteem for male above
female energy prevails in this theory ; since the ethereal
part of the masculine power is divine, and of the feminine
power only spiritual. But from the phrases " dissipated/'
" dissolved," " scattered," applied to the soul by philoso-
phical writers, its existence would seem to depend upon
the physical conformation of the body, whose animating
substance it constitutes, till resolved into its original ele-
ments at death. Some authors speak of its residing in
the body as sharpness in a knife — a theory which makes
its preservation depend on the state of the body. Of the
phrase San Hwan, " three souls," which probably refers
to the Ling, the Hwan, and the Pih, I received the fol-
lowing illustration from a Chinese : — At death, one of these
spirits remains in the house as its protector, to which
incense is daily offered by the surviving members of
the family ; another becomes guardian divinity of the
sepulchre, to whose honour a small stone tablet is erected
with an inscription on it, meaning, " happy spirit,"

• Sw page 137.

MAN POSSESSED OF THREE SPIRITS.

" guardian of the tomb," " spirit behind," or some similar
phrase ; the third passes into the invisible state, to receive
honours and offerings rendered by its worshippers on a
platform of stone prepared for their accommodation at the
head of the grave.* I have no written authority for such
interpretation, but the circumstances adduced in support
of it most certainly take place, and therefore invest it
with an air of probability. It appears from Chinese
authors that, until the introduction of Buddhism, but little
was said on the migratory state of the soul after death.
Some opinions, it is probable, were previously entertained
respecting man's existence beyond the grave; because
worship was anciently rendered to heaven and earth as
the Supreme Deity. It may, however, be affirmed, that
when correct traditions of divine revelation were extin-
guished, by the growing prevalence of human depravity,
all higher motives of religious homage simultaneously
perished ; for if the original depositaries of truth con-
veyed along with the doctrine of divine existence, that of
righteous retribution also, as doubtless they did, it can
hardly be denied that just notions on both points would
stand or fall together. Since no well-defined concern for

* According to tin' Roman poet*, ever; man possessed a three-fold soul,
which after the diteolution of the body resolved itself into the manti, Ihc
ujuuia or tpiritm, and the umbra j to each uf which a different place was
assigned. The manes descended into Ibc infernal regions:, to inhabit either
Tartarus or Elysium. The ooima ascended to the (Vies, to mingle with the
gods ; while the umbra hovered around the tomb, as if unwilling to ijuit it*
connection with the body, of which it ivies the irrnith or shadow. This notion
is expressed in the following lines, attributed to Ovid : —

"Terra tcgil canicm, tuniulum eircunwolnt umbra,
Orcui hnbet mann, ipiritui astra petit,"
Hence Virgil represents Dido, when aboot to expire, at threatening to tmunt
.Eneas with her umbra, at the same time consoling herself with the rxpectn-

' ip of In- )iii!ii-l lit nil! reach her una ui the shades

Mow, — Encyc. Ilritaim., art. Apparitions.

SUFFERINGS OF THE UNSEEN STATE. 173

the welfare of the human spirit, no proper estimate of its
importance, nor even any impressive sentiments of its
existence, are put forth by the founder of moral philo-
sophy, or the restorer of reason, we must look for religious
opinions in China principally among the Buddhists, whose
tenets are embraced by many in connection with the
morals of Confucius, not a few of whose followers ridicule
them in health, but are glad of their succour in affliction,
when the approach of death excites the apprehensions of
that mysterious monitor within, which, where the feeblest
light is thrown on futurity, cannot be satisfied without
some preparation for the solemn act of entering its un-
known regions.

The late Dr. Milne has given the following summary
of opinions entertained by this sect on future retribution.
" The sufferings of the Tartarus which their terrified ima-
ginations have figured are represented in pictures, as the
punishments in Purgatory and Tartarus were exhibited in
the Eleusinian and other heathen mysteries; with this
difference, however, that these are exposed to public view,
those were seen by the initiated only. Lakes of blood,
into which women who die in child-bed are plunged ; red-
hot iron pillars, which the wicked are made to embrace ;
devouring lions, tigers, snakes, and other animals ; moun-
tains stuck all over with knives, on the points of which
the condemned are cast down and seen weltering in gore ;
cutting out the tongue; strangling; sawing asunder be-
tween flaming iron posts ; the condemned creeping into
the skins of those animals in the form of which they are
destined to appear again on earth ; boiling of the wicked
in caldrons ; the wheel or apparatus by means of which
all the operations of the metempsychosis are performed ;

174 SUFFERINGS Op THE UNSEEN STATE.

horned demons, with swords, spears, hatchets, and hooks ;
wretched mortals, alternately shivering with indescribable
cold, and burnt to coals with devouring fire : these, with
numberless other such things, are represented with gross
and disgusting minuteness."

These terrible representations of a future state, which
awaken feelings of horror in vulgar minds, assume the
form of impartial justice, proceeding by the ordinary pro-
cess of law, where the judge, seated on his bench, hears
accusations and administers punishments, according to the
demerit of crimes proved by witnesses to have been com-
mitted, who are represented as present. In the absence
of revelation, scenes of future misery seem much less
difficult to imagine than those of happiness. The Paradise
of Oriental heathens, suggested by a vain imagination,
necessarily consists of sensual and puerile enjoyments,
rendered desirable to appetites converted by long indul-
gence into habits, and fostered by a luxuriant climate
destitute of the power to gratify propensities it never fails
to create. No one conversant with human nature, with
its solicitude to grasp objects not yet attained, sod with
its desire, from disappointment or satiety, to acquire un-
possessed pleasure, will suppose that the most ingenious
fancy can devise schemes of bliss competent to supply
solid satisfaction. What, then, must be the gloominess t&d
discomfort even of those who deny that they are ob-
noxious to purgatorial pains, or liable to atone in an
animal body for sins committed as rational beings ; since
by the very constitution of natural taste no hope can be
indulged of unsatiating felicity? But how few deluded
heathens are placed by the decisions of conscience, be-
climdi'd and misguided though it be, on such an eminence

CW KPAVTCD £F7XJ1<R. 175

and the jracbce of ^If^nrmc.
rife*, ft* to aercr* even this small measure of
defenve tm au ftn ; And what is the alternative but an
■handmiMi nt to those monstrous terrors which tiend-
Eke iift|iiinlii>n> alone could invent, or minds immersed

believe ? I hare seen Chinese re-
look at pictures of purgatorial torment, descrilted
above, with a horror apparently engendered by the im-
prrMJon tint they were contemplating a portraiture of
their own futare doom.

The worship of departed spirits is another species of
s up d sUti on, which exerts a mighty and irresistible inrlu*
orer the Chinese. It seems to consist of Confu-
and Buddhism commingled, for disciples of both
teds, whether their tenets are distinct or blended in one
system, agree in this solemn observance. It operates us
an all-powerful spell, by which living, sentient beings are
indissolobiy bound to invisible shades, once dwellers upon
earth. And since the soul of man, it is taken for granted,
dwells apart from his body, its immortality, as u natural
consequence of separate existence, may lie considered as
the basis of a practice, which invests his imperishable part
with power to exist unencumbered with a mortal form.
Perhaps a description of this ceremony will be more in-
telligible if preceded by a brief statement of Chinese
usages at death and interment.

When the parent of a family dies, a messenger is de-
spatched to announce the event to relatives and friends ;
and a tablet is suspended at the door of wealthy persons,
inscribed with the name and age of the deceased. White
being used in mourning by the Chinese, pieces of white
paper are pasted on each side of the door, to indicate the

176 CEREMONIES PERFORMED AT DEATH.

occurrence among individuals of ordinary rank. Children
and grand-children of the deceased, clothed in white, with
a white bandage round their heads, sit on the ground
weeping around the corpse, which is covered by friends
with white cloth or silk the size of a coverlet. The eldest
son puts two small copper coins into an earthen bowl,
which he takes in his hands, and carries, supported by
his friends, to the moat that surrounds the city, or to the
well at the gate of the village, where he deposits his
money and takes some water.* He returns home with
the water thus purchased, and the ceremony is performed
of washing the face and body of the corpse, which is then
put into a coffin in state ; and a tablet is erected bearing
the name of the deceased ; an eulogy on his character as
a probationary being, and the designation of the dynasty
under which he has lived. These tablets vary in form
and inscription in different parts of China. The first in-
scription on paper is burnt and substituted by wood, be-
fore which, morning and evening for seven successive
days, incense matches are lighted, and the children of the
family prostrate themselves. At the end of three weeks
the funeral takes place, attended by friends and relatives,
who weep aloud. The tablet is carried in a sedan chair,
and placed at the head of the grave, where oblations are
rendered and prostrations again performed. After inter-
ment, the tablet is brought back, and sacrifices of pigs
roasted whole, three or four different kinds of animal food,

* The ceremony Ipf /\\ mae shwuy, of buying water can only be per-
formed by the eldest son living, or the eldest son's son, in preference to the
second son. Whoever brings the water is entitled to a double share of the
property. When neither children nor grand-children are alive, those next of
kin buy the water, and inherit the property ; so that, in fact, this ceremony
determines the heir.

FUNERAL RITES. 177

fruits, and pastry are offered, with accompanying prostra-
tions; also morning and evening oblations, during the space
of seven weeks, with the accustomed ceremonial of bowing
the head in the dust. Instead of seven days, a period of
seven weeks is observed by some rich families, who also
defer interment many years. Rooms of paper, supplied
with furniture and domestics, are burnt and passed into
the invisible state for the use of the deceased. In more
barbarous ages, slaves, attendants, and domestic animals,
were slaughtered ; and the wardrobe, furniture, and other
things belonging to the deceased, were consumed by fire
to supply the wants of the disembodied spirit. This cruel
custom originated in the following manner : — In remote
antiquity when rich persons died, imperfect representa-
tions of human beings, made of straw and supplied with
springs, were entombed with them as their future attend-
ants ; but subsequently, about the age of Confucius,
images for this purpose were made of wood, and bore a more
striking resemblance to living persons than those ancient
forms which they superseded ; hence the sage, foreseeing
that such a practice would eventually issue in the sacri-
fice of human life, severely reprehended the inventor as
an enemy to his species, and declared him to be justly
deprived of posterity for his offence — one of the heaviest
calamities with which, in Chinese estimation, he could be
visited. The horrid usage, introduced not long after,
verified the prediction of the sage, whose benevolent
apprehensions respecting the waste of human life were
realized to a fearful extent. For when Woo-king of the
state Tsin died, sixty-six persons were put to death, and
interred with him. One hundred and seventy-seven ordi-
nary individuals, together with three persons of superior

■

178 FUNERAL KITES AT THE

rank, were devoted by death to the service of Muh-huny
in another world : — a monody still exists lamenting the
fate of these three noblemen. Tsin-che-hwang-te, the
first universal monarch of China, who flourished about
two hundred years before the Christian rera, built the
great wall of China, burnt all her books, buried alive, or
left to perish in a pit, four hundred and sixty of her literati,
commanded that his household females and domestics
should be put to death and interred with him. Tho
custom survived this period for some time; and when
persons offered themselves voluntarily to die, from attach-
ment to their masters or friends, such sacrifices were
esteemed most noble and disinterested, but moral writers
of a later age alike condemn the exactors and the victims
of such barbarity. Modern times are satisfied with
consecrating by fire silver paper, and representations of
earthly enjoyments, accompanied by sacrifices, offerings,
and libations.

Paper money, not for commercial purposes but to
scatter at funerals, was brought into use during the ex-
istence of the states Wei and Tsin, in the third century
after Christ. The writer has frequently seen this cere-
mony performed at Malacca, where Chinese, during their
voluntary exile, scrupulously observe the rites of their
native country, and tenaciously retain its traditions and
customs. Amid the varieties of Pagan worship, no pro-
fessedly religious act is ever performed with more scru-
pulous exactness or apparent solemnity by the Chinese
than that of worshipping at the tombs of their progenitors.
Aware, however, of the aversion of Christians to such a
practice as idolatrous, they endeavour to obviate objec-
tions, by pleading for it as a mode of external respect

spect

TOMBS OP RELATIVES. 179

similar to interment among Europeans, and to their care
of the tombs of deceased relatives. But every discerning
observer will soon be convinced of the (utility of their
comparisons, and the falseness of the conclusions to which
their reasonings lead. For if there be apparent sincerity
in any act of idolatrous worship, which commends itself
in grave, considerate deportment, it is manifested by these
devotees when sacrificing to the manes of their ancestors.
This mode of worship is attended with stronger demon-
strations of feeling than any other, probably because there
is deeper apprehension that neglect will occasion temporal
afflictions, and engender worldly disappointments and
losses. Self-interest prefers a strong claim to the pa-
rentage of this apparently benevolent devotion. Super-
stitious fear of being punished, guilty omission of what
conscience enforces as a sacred duty, impression created
by public opinion, and sanctity acquired by a custom
prevailing from remote antiquity, which is, moreover, in
perfect accordance with natural feelings, co-operate to
stamp this exercise with characteristics so peculiarly sa-
cred and meritorious, that it insinuates itself into the
more important relations of life, and becomes so closely
entwined around the fibres of the human heart as to be
almost necessary to social existence and enjoyment. So
strongly does veneration for this tribute after death pre-
vail, that parents, in order to secure the memorial of the
sepulchre for a daughter who has died during her betroth-
ment, give her in marriage after her decease to her in-
tended husband, who receives with nuptial ceremonies at
his own house a paper effigy made by her parents, and,
after he has burnt it, erects a tablet to her memory ; an
honour which usage forbids to be rendered to the memory

it 2

BENEVOLENT

of unmarried persons. The law seeks without effect to
abolish this absurd custom,

Judging only by what is seen at such season?, a stranger
would augur favourably of the national disposition, H
humane and even charitable. Its professed object is to
i progenitors, and supply their wants; nor is the
service confined to those by whom relative obligations
have been conferred on earth, for there is a public insti-
tution, supported by voluntary subscriptions, which pro-
fesses to supply the necessities of orphan spirits, who have
no consanguineous survivors to care for them. There is
a story, on which this practice is founded, of a young
man named Muk-leen, to whom the epithet ' Honorable '
is now attached. His mother was a very wicked woman,
and after death consigned to punishment in Tartarus,
whither her pious and devoted son repaired on the fif-
teenth of the seventh moon to rescue her from tor-
ment. When the gates of "earth's prison" — the
Chinese term for hell — were opened, many of the im-
prisoned spirits escaped from the regions of darkness;
and hence the custom of preparing garments of paper,
and burning them for the use of the dead, spreading
carpets on the floor, reciting numerous prayers, and cover-
ing tables with rich viands of varied descriptions, to
remove from the abodes of darkness disconsolate spirits
who have left no relatives on earth, for the purpose of
elevating them to regions of light and purity. Similar
ceremonies of scattering prayers and burning clothes arc
performed on the water on behalf of those spirits whose
bodies have been drowned : numerous lanterns are lighted
up at nights, and the ceremony is continued every day
from the first of the seventh month to the fifteenth. At

AT THB TOMBS OF STRANGERS. 181

the same season a yearly sacrifice of pigs, goats, and fowls,
with extensive offerings of fruit, is provided by the Chinese
of Malacca for the use of this description of spirits, to
whom silver paper is dedicated by fire ; a medium sup-
posed to be necessary to constitute it an available offering.
Why fire should be esteemed sacred does not appear. It
is sufficiently virtuous to convert things from common to
sacred uses, and even by the process of destruction to
redeem them from desecration. Although it would be re-
garded as contemptuous to employ paper inscribed with
Chinese symbols for ordinary purposes, or suffer detached
pieces no longer serviceable to be trampled upon, yet burn-
ing it is not only free from objection, but enjoined as a duty
incumbent upon all good Chinamen. A small furnace is
erected within the area of the temple at Malacca, to
which superfluous portions of written paper are brought
to be consumed. Since the characters of the language,
according to received theories, originated in heaven, fire
is considered the proper medium of restoring them to
their pristine dignity, after their allotted service on earth.
But the uninitiated will not easily trace the connection
between rude outlines of symbols derived from heaven,
and their destruction, in a more perfect state by fire,
unless this element be the ordained medium of intercourse
between heaven and earth. It evidently does not result
from the fitness of things. Human reason, left to its own
discretion, might with equal propriety have chosen any
other element as the ground of its plea with the Supreme
Power. Indeed, on any other principle but that of an
ulterior tradition from divine revelation, it appears impos-
sible to account for the prominence given to fire as a
consecrating element in sacred things. Such conjecture

derives some plausibility, I think, from the fact that the
symbol for lamb in Chinese is composed of sheep and
jire, that is, a sheep on the fire, as though the peculiar
appropriation and destiny of lambs were for sacrificial
offerings through fire : an idea not incongruous with the
Statement of Confucius, that a lamb constituted an ancient
sacrifice of very great importance. Other victims, pre-
viously deprived of life, are offered in sacrifice; and fire
is extensively and frequently employed as a sacred medium
between the ultimate cause and human beings. Water,
already alluded to as the first element, is sometimes made
the receptacle of an extraordinary offering. The writer
remembers seeing at Malacca a tortoise offered to the sea
by a Chinese whose filial respect, or superstitious feeling,
prompted him to render an extra tribute to his deceased
progenitors. After a paper house was consumed, and
costly delicacies peculiar to the climate and season were
offered, with prostrations on the earth by the male mem-
bers of the family clothed in sackcloth, the tortoise was
committed alive to the sea, near which a guard remained
sufficiently long to see that no avaricious hand deprived
the hungry spirits of their expected feast. A ceremony
of this kind is performed in favour of J^ f& a minister of
state greatly beloved by the people, who, having been
falsely accused, drowned himself, about two thousand
years ago : it consists of a quantity of rice bound up in
a certain leaf, and tied with silk cords of various colours,
which is then boiled and thrown into the water. The same
observance continues to this day, and is annually performed
on the fifth of the fifth moon, accompanied by the amuse-
ment of dragon-boats, ami heating of drums, intended
strike awe into the evil spirits that may lurk about the

i se-
ll to

DECEASED PARENTS. 183

The period of mourning for parents prescribed by Con-
fucius, is three years ; the ground of which is the pecu-
liarly helpless state of infancy and its entire dependence
on parental care during that time. The sage's system is
retributive. It designs that obligations incurred by chil-
dren towards their parents should be discharged in their own
maturity, when their parents are descending into second
childhood ; and hence the prohibition of silken garments
and animal food to those who are under seventy years of age.
The care of parents on earth was worthy the legislative
ability and benevolence of the sage ; but he transgressed the
limits of duty, and endangered his reputation for practical
wisdom, when he ordained rites of worship to their manes.
On the principle of reciprocation, the relations of parent
and child become reversed. The father, who is the source
of authority in this life, is dependent in the disembodied
state on his children who survive him — a system which
renders this world the source of supplies essential to im-
mortal existence. The devotees at the tomb are com-
manded to sacrifice to their ancestors as present, to cherish
the remembrance of their virtues, and closely imitate their
example. Mourning is not to be worn for children who
die under seven years of age. Writers on filial ethics
enjoin the interment of deceased friends in a substantial
coffin by the side of a hill, to insure the preservation of
their remains for the longest possible period. Sometimes
the ceremony of opening the grave, collecting the bones,
washing aad placing them in an urn, and re-interring the
sacred deposit, is performed by those who affect unusual
filial devotion. Tombstones were introduced about the
first century of the Christian aru, and inscriptions, which
recorded the virtues of the dead, were entombed with

184

SACRIFICES

tin-in. Iu ancient times it was not the usage to offer
sacrifices at the tombs. It is not known precisely when
the practice commenced, but it was probably about the
age of Confucius. About the seventh century of our sera,
persons were employed to weep at funerals, and finally
hired for that purpose; the custom of observing every
seventh day for a period of seven weeks, as a day of
mourning and supplication after the death of elder rela-
tives, began about this period. The remarkable fact of
worshipping the shades of the dead as gods, and sup-
porting them as creatures by their sacrificial offerings,
does not appear to have struck the Chinese themselves as
an inconsistency. A large sacrifice is offered yearly on the
6th of April, at the tombs of their ancestors. The term
is called Tsing-ming, " pure and illustrious ;" probably be-
cause by its observance the habitations of the dead are
kept in repair, and the worship of departed friends is
maintained, both which acts are deemed splendid illus-
trations of filial devotion. Papers are strewed about the
grave with careful negligence, to remind passers by that
its proprietor has rendered necessary homage to its un-
conscious inhabitant. Tents are erected in different parts
of the cemetery, and supplied with essentials of life, or
luxuries, according to resources and circumstances, to
gratify guests who may honour the family vault with a.
devotional visit. The whole day is spent among the
tombs, which are generally on the slope of a bill, and
considerably occupied by these votaries of superstitiou,
in interchange of friendly visits at each other's place of
sepulture, where, notwithstanding rigid punctuality and
seriousness in performing the rites of worship, festive
gaiety prevails with as much spirit and enjoyment, after

AT TUB TOMBS OP ANCESTORS. 185

the prostrations are over, as in any ordinary convivial
meeting. Nourishment, consisting of rice, pork, fowl,
wine, and fruit of all kinds, is first offered to the spirit,
with the usual act of homage ; and having been thus con-
secrated to spiritual and invisible objects, is consumed by
the worshippers, under the impression of comforting de-
parted shades with sustenance, thereby sanctified to their
own support, without diminishing its value for physical
purposes. Social intercourse and religious fellowship (so
called) are blended in one act ; for all who partake of the
hospitality of such a season are expected to join in its
devotions. An exception is made in favour of the mission-
aries, who, while the writer resided at Malacca, visited
the tombs to distribute tracts, and converse with the
worshippers. No objection was felt on the part of the
Chinese to our participating their refreshment, nor did we
ask questions for conscience' sake respecting its supposed
idolatrous devotement. It is painful to a Christian mind,
deeply impressed with its responsibilities, to mingle in
such scenes ; since their eternal consequences to the im-
mediate actors cannot be of doubtful import. Nor is the
occasion without danger of a two-fold kind— operating
first on the missionary, by creating lukewarmness, and
moral insensibility, and then by re-action on the heathen,
who perceive less of that jealousy for the Lord of Hosts,
than it is his duty to exhibit as well as feel when in con-
tact with such abominations; since, from their constant
recurrence, and the conviction of personal inability to
counteract their influence, it is difficult to maintain a
proper sense of their enormous guilt and extreme folly.
Human nature, pliant to evil in every form, however un-
congenial may be some of its modifications with esta-

186

3EPULCHHAL WORSHIP

blished habite, would rather glide along with the stream
of current opinions, than set itself, with determined en-
ergy, to resist and correct them. Christian principle
suffers great trial of strength in opposing this depraved
tendency, where no cruel or revolting acts outrage the
feelings of humanity. Experience is the best monitor as
to the time for assailing such superstitions. The oppor-
tunity of addressing so many heathen, released from their
secular engagements, on the beauty and excellency of
Divine truth, as contrasted with the vain and sinful cere-
monies they are convened to celebrate, seems too desirable
to be omitted without self-dissatisfaction. It may, how-
ever, be questioned, whether the mind, under the fasci-
nating influence of such superstitious scenes, and excited
by their present agency, be in so favourable a state to
receive impressions as when possessed of its ordinary
t hough tfulness and tranquillity.

Chinese, from their native urbanity, are certainly more
tolerant of opposition, and less addicted to excessive ido-
latry, in the literal sense of the term, than many others
who give heed to the doctrines of devils and seducing
spirits; but, perhaps, more real good will arise from calm
expostulations in the absence of demon -worship, than
when in actual contact with its debasing scenes and prac-
tices. This species of will-worship has been a stronghold
of idolatry for numerous ages, and constitutes a most for-
midable barrier to the admission of a rational and purer
system of devotion. It involves the mind in the darkest
labyrinths of error, and fortifies its prejudices so strongly,
that scarcely any human consideration will induce a
Chinese to resign his ancestral tablet — its symbol of au-
thority. It is the very last relic of Paganism, which a

A POWERFUL SUPERSTITION. 187

subject of Divine grace will surrender, and where policy,
apparent conviction, or temporal advantage, has induced
a Pagan to assume a new profession, this one symbol of
devotion, as an irresistible charm, has recalled him from
his wanderings in the pathway of truth to his ancient
superstition, and bound him, as with a fatal spell, under
its omnipotent influences. So strongly did it interfere
with the prosperity of Romanism by restoring to its own
bosom those who had lapsed into that faith, that violence
to the ancestral tablet, as proof of sincerity, was subse-
quently made the test of fitness to her communion. It
truly constitutes a mighty mass of superstitious power,
fearful not only in magnitude, but in the number of its
constituent parts, the closeness of their mutual connection,
and the extent of their ramifications in society. It is
fixed in the strongest holds of the human spirit, whose
feelings, judgment, consciousness, habitudes, all conspire
to support it. It pervades every gradation of society,
every diversity of age, each sex, all modifications of out-
ward condition. Its prosperity is hailed as a common
interest, by husband and wife, father and son, brother and
sister, master and servant, friend and neighbour, ruler
and subject. Its presence is marked by incense matches,
burned morning and evening in the family, whose abode
becomes identified with the tomb by the most mournful
and sacred associations. The renewal at intervals of se-
pulchral rites prolongs intercourse between departed and
present members of families, brings as well former gene-
rations into ideal contact with passing scenes and acts,
as living beings with those now sleeping in the dust.
The ancient Egyptians affected to retain the inhabitants of
the world when dead, amid the daily haunts of men, not

SEPULCHRAL WOIISHIP

so much to familiarise themselves with the termination of
life, as to rob death of his triumph, and deprive the grave
of its spoils. The long period to which interment is some-
times deferred by rich families in China, seems to involve
a resemblance in sentiment to that which dictated the
preservation of bodies by embalming in Egypt.

The constant anticipation of death would seem to be
present with the Chinese in the practice adopted at
Malacca, of always having a coffin placed outside the
door to receive the adult inhabitant who may first require
it. There is, however, but little if any additional serious-
ness on the great moral question. I have seen an aged
individual seated on a cotEn which he would perhaps soon
occupy, reading not one of their ethical or religious
works, tut a popular novel, highly esteemed, indeed,
for the abdity with which it is written, though its imme-
diate influence on the heart must be to increase its
disinclination for the solemn ordeal of the judgment-seat.
The appearance to a Christian stranger of so many pecu-
liarly formed receptacles for the dead, consentaneously
placed at the doors of human dwellings, is calculated to
awaken his sympathies, and create a tender interest on
behalf of their owners. The motive for this singular act
is ascribed to the requirements of filial piety, which cannot
be satisfied without coffins of prescribed thickness, suffi-
ciently seasoned to resist premature decay. So strict are
its injunctions, and so punctually are the duties fulfilled,
that aged persons anticipate the rites to be performed at
their sepulchres with the joy of hope, which accounts for
the keener anguish felt by a parent on the death of his
first-born son, than for any other child, since he is thereby
deprived both of a representative on earth, and of a con-

A POWERFUL SUPERSTITION. 189

tributor to his enjoyment in Paradise. Still so fondly do
surviving members of families extend the sympathies
cherished for life beyond the grave, that if they had their
choice, even death would be preferred to perpetual separa-
tion. An occurrence came under my own observation il-
lustrative of this remark. A Chinese, convicted of a cruel
murder, had been sentenced to transportation for life.
His friends, who sought to procure a mitigation of his
punishment, solicited my supposed influence as an English-
man with the Governor on their behalf. I urged the
aggravated nature of the offence as a reason why I could
not even conscientiously ask such a thing, if I were sure
of success ; and suggested that it ought to be matter of
thankfulness he was not hanged. He immediately re-
plied, that he considered this a much severer punishment
than death ; for in that case his parents, who were living,
might have performed his funeral rites, and the usual
offices at the tomb, of which he was now deprived, while
they would also be totally cut off from all intercourse
with their son after death as well as in life. In a merely
legislative aspect, we learn from this fact that banishment
for life is regarded as a much severer act of retribution
than death itself by the Chinese, as it probably is by all
nations who have no fixed apprehension of future punish-
ment My object in introducing it was to exemplify the
power of demon-worship over the heart and conscience of
a Chinaman.

Filial piety is the first of moral obligations incu leal ad
on children ; who are taught to reverence their parents,
and render them unlimited obedience, to anticipate their
wishes, alleviate their burdens in mature age, and aflbrd
them necessary support and comfort in their declining years.
Confucius says, " Observe the disposition of a son while
his parent is living, and have respect to his conduct when
he is dead." A son is established in filial piety, who
swerves not from principles recommended by his fattier
during three years after his death. With seeming pre-
ference for sincere feeling to outward form, propriety, or
ceremony, really occupies a prominent position in every
act. It 1b the standard by which nn obedient son regu-
lates his deportment towards bis parents in life; it dic-
tates appropriate honours at their death and interim.' nt,
and suggests the choice of sacrifices to be rendered to their
manes. But filial duty is violated when a sou's propen-
sity to slothfulness, gambling, or drunkenness, deprives
his aged parents of support; when wealth is bestowed
with selfish preference on his own family to their neglect;
when, to their dishonour, he obeys the seductive lusts of
the eye and eur; or when their life is endangered by his

MOBAL PHILOSOPHY OF CONFUCIUS. 191

love of contention and warfare. Confucius, from whom
principles of filial piety, and rules for its observance, ema-
nated, though the doctrine did not originate with him,
was of a mild, placable disposition, and discouraged in
his disciples a turbulent and vindictive spirit His in-
structions were communicated in the twofold capacity of
legislator and moral philosopher. He urged attention to
the elements of things on the maxim, that a man of supe-
rior virtue must study first principles with unwearied
application ; for when these are rooted in the mind, ex-
terior excellence, both ornamental and practical, admits of
easy and successful culture. But what is the basis of this
boasted perfection of Chinese sages ? Virtue and know-
ledge seem to be inseparably connected, as root and
branch, fountain and stream ; the presence of one pledges
the existence of the other. Perfect wisdom and immacu-
late purity belong connaturally to philosophers of the
highest class. The next grade, though not born with the
same splendid moral and physical properties, is yet able
to acquire them by study ; and a step further in the de-
scending series, considerable eminence, literary and moral,
may be attained by indefatigable diligence and intense
labour; but the lowest class of persons, including the
mass of mankind, are not only born without superior
pretensions, but never arrive at perfection, even with long
and severe application. Talent of the highest order is,
consequently, a kind of aristocracy in China; and, al-
though not hereditary, it is enjoyed by some as the gift
of heaven, over which they have no more control than a
person born to an estate has had in determining his
fortune. This distinction in favour of sages does not,
however, include moral excellence ; for all are considered

MORAL PniLOSOPRV OF rONFrcirs.

as born with docile, virtuous dispositions, and capable by
their own efforts of attaining the standard of perfect
virtue; sacred and moral influence is diffused by their
presence, which operates with beneficent energy on all
whom it surrounds. Their example is dignified by the
most exalted epithets, as divine, holy, renovating in its
character, a living expression of undecaying moral beauty.
Prosperity, individual, social, and national, rests on per-
sonal virtue, founded in a knowledge of fundamental
principles, which of itself is amply sufficient to insure
virtuous practice. The summit of excellence, the golden
medium, or pathway of universal rectitude in accordance
with the pervading laws of nature, is the object sought by
wise and holy men.

The highest practical point of moral goodness and
beauty, is agreement with nature as regulated by the un-
alterable ordinations of heaven, and consentaneous with
reason, its grand and ultimate aim. Such is the cele-
brated wisdom of China; resplendent in the cultivation of
virtue that diffuses its regenerating influences throughout
society, while it reposes on the undisturbed heights of
perfect tranquillity. But this object, in order to its being
sought, must be thoroughly known: for it cannot be
sought aright unless the mind be in a fixed and peaceful
state, by which it is prepared for calm, deliberate investi-
gation — the undoubted precursor of desired success. On
this system the mind of the perfect man is a transcript of
the visible universe. Its profundity may be compared to
nature's deepest caverns, its altitude to the sublimity of
heaven, and its substratum to the solidity of earth. It
has, moreover, its ideal centre, round which its powers
and perfections continually revolve with undeviatiug rec-

KNOWLEDGE AND PURITY.

193

titude : and hence the extravagant language employed to
describe the attainments and practice of virtuous men.

Knowledge, the property of every inquiring, diligent
mind, is sufficient to purify the heart, rectify the prin-
ciples, elevate the understanding, control the affections,
and govern the conduct. The most esteemed sages of
antiquity were distinguished by nothing superior to the
spirit of inquisition which they carried into the laws of
matter, both in its original and organized state ; into the
structure of society — in its habits and usages ; and into
the operations and powers of mind, so far as they under-
stood its constitution. Unfounded theories on the original
substance of which the universe was framed, and on its
creation and government, mystified by absurd reasoning
therefrom, constitute the chief of what is known of the
Great First Cause. To complete this ideal fabric, man is
invested with attributes appropriate only to God, whom
it excludes from the dominion of his own world, and
deprives of homage supremely due from creatures to their
Creator as Lord of all. The deportment of the sage re-
sembles the order and regularity of the seasons, which,
irrespective of counteracting elements, revolve according
to fixed laws. His moral influence may be compared to
the canopy of heaven, which overshadows all things ; his
usefulness, to the fructifying power and nourishing pro-
perties of earth ; and his sublime doctrine, to the confluence
of light in the heavenly bodies, which irradiates surround-
ing objects. Nature's feebler energies are represented by
flowing streams ; her more impetuous impulses by extra-
ordinary fertility and mighty changes : herein is displayed
the majesty of heaven and earth, to which the sage's all-
pervading influence bears a striking resemblance. Assum-

194 PRINCIPLES OP DOMESTIC

ing that perfect knowledge is the source of all virtue,
Confucius applies it practically to the science of domestic
and political economy. When a prince desires to exercise
mild and benignant government over an empire, he pro-
ceeds, first, to the moral culture of his province ; but it
is under the conviction that, as a necessary prelude to
success, his family must be virtuous and well regulated ;
that no efforts will avail to secure this object unless his
person be adorned with virtue; that the source of per-
sonal excellence is a right state of heart, which cannot
exist but with purity of motive ; and that universally cor-
rect motives will never prevail except under the influence
of profound knowledge. Prince and peasant have, there-
fore, but one duty to perform — that of restoring the mind
to its original standard of purity and intelligence ; for the
procedure required by a well-regulated family will suffice
to sway the destinies of a mighty empire. Confucius
admonishes man to deport himself with due propriety, as
a parent, a son, a younger and an elder brother, according
to his position in society, which is composed of separate
communities, united in consanguineous bonds, whose
obligations involve principles and practice necessary for
the safety, and sufficient for the happiness, of an entire
kingdom.

Filial and fraternal affection constitute the foundation
of external duties ; and where the manners of a people
are*based upon virtue, rebellion and anarchy never arise.
Dutiful submission to parents secures willing obedience to
princes ; and subordination of each person to his senior in
the family is a pledge of respect to superior members of
the body politic. Tenderness in a father towards his
children, is a fine exemplification of the kind feeling with

AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 195

which a ruler should regard his subjects, whose destinies
are entrusted to his sole arbitration, so long as he governs
with wisdom and discretion, and administers instruction,
support, counsel, and correction, with intelligence and
justice as an impartial yet deeply-affected observer. This
patriarchal mode of government commends itself to infant
communities by its simplicity, and its accordance with
those natural principles on which domestic economy is
based. For if, on the ground of absolute dependence, a
family yield implicit submission to its head, so a king-
dom, whose immunities and privileges flow only from the
sovereign, is bound to concur in every expression of his
will. It is a singular phenomenon in such a system, that
it approves the dethronement of a prince whom his sub-
jects unanimously oppose, and registers their sentiments
in its archives as a decree from heaven, against which
every one who seeks to uphold him is a transgressor. Its
theory is despotic power without responsibility, while it
admits in practice of most liberal popular influence, uniting
the closest despotism with the freest democracy ; on the
maxim, perhaps, that extremes carried beyond a certain
point contain elements of mutual approximation. It is
not, however, inflexible principle, but expediency, which
characterizes this theory : because success — the infallible
token of heaven's approbation— determines not merely
the power of the party whom it favours, but the justice of
their cause. Theory and practice, not on this subject
alone, but on every other where desertion of avowed
principles has the prospect of substantial reward, stand
diametrically opposed to each other. An exposition of
motives and aims in certain acts is freely tendered ; nor,
granting to the expositor his own mode of illustration and

o2

196 PRACTICAL DUTIES.

argument, can any complaint be made of unreasonable or
unjust proceedings. This dissonance between sentiment
and action will remind classical readers of the poet's ad-
mission —

" Video proboqne meliora et deteriora sequor."

The influence of Confucius's ethical system with con-
temporary and succeeding governments, arises from the
irresponsible power it ascribes to a virtuous prince, and
the unbounded veneration of regal authority with which
it inspires his subjects. Knowledge of it was origi-
nally sought with the ostensible object of improvement in
morals and science; but being now the only accessible
medium to official distinction and emoluments, its boasted
power of moral renovation is merged in purposes of
secular ambition. No code of morals, or combination of
abstract principles, would, through so many successive
ages, amid the revolutions and vicissitudes of society,
have imbued with its spirit, and modified by its influence,
a despotic form of government, itself the subject of
numerous changes, had it not favoured the notion of
absolute dominion as exercised by the sovereigns of
China. Moreover, since it is universally approved by the
people, it cannot be altogether unfriendly to their interests.
Perhaps its benign aspect on domestic habits may tend
to soften the rigour of its political restrictions ; especially
since honours and rewards of office are open to general
competition, with the avowed object of selecting those
only who excel in fine writing and acquaintance with the
classic lore of antiquity.

But it will be necessary to notice the practical duties
which Confucius enforced on his disciples in their social
and political relations, whose system excludes respon-

FIVE VIRTUES — BENEVOLENCE. 197

sibility to the Supreme Being. Three important bonds,
necessary to the subsistence of society, are faithfulness
between prince and minister, reverence between father
and son, and difference of rank between husband and
wife ; duties which the subordinates in these relations are
bound to observe ; the wife cultivating a proper sense of
her inferiority, the son yielding profound veneration, and
the minister preserving his fidelity inviolate. The number
three was probably suggested by the three powers in
nature, which is the model of imitation to the sage, the
moralist, and the legislator. So also the abstract virtues,
which generate whatever is lovely and valuable in human
intercourse, are reduced to five; because five original
elements were wrought up into the composition of the
universe. These virtues are, benevolence, righteousness,
propriety, wisdom, and sincerity. Benevolence is a virtue
which heaven exercises towards all creatures ; especially
towards man in supplying his wants, pitying his infirmi-
ties, and relieving his distresses. It is characteristic of
the feelings which a virtuous prince cultivates towards his
subjects, who, while he seeks their welfare with the skill
and affection of a mother, imitates the disinterested ten-
derness of heaven. The parent and the patriot strive to
excel in the same high attainment, the one to cherish his
family, the other to promote the well-being of his country.
It includes, however, moral excellence, on which the cha-
ritable disposition it inculcates is grafted ; for whatever
generosity exists, if the conduct be disfigured with vices,
there can be no genuine benevolence ; hence the term is
also used by moral philosophers to denote perfect virtue.
Selfishness, the most formidable antagonist of this prin-
ciple, is professedly extirpated by the higher class of

198

BEMEVOLENl'E.

moralists. Confucius, it is said, was destitute of selfish-
ness, prejudice, bigotry, and egotism. He found the first
of these the prevailing evil of his day, and opposed it by
all his authority and influence. Corrupt men did not
scruple to enter office for the sake of its emoluments,
under princes whose government was tyrannical and hurt-
ful to the people, and whose principles were opposed to
the renowned doctrines of antiquity. lie expelled from
his community a disciple who had amassed riches by
extortion; and denounced another who coveted gain, as
violating the will of heaven. Human nature, as it is
modified by love of present benefits, was thoroughly
studied, and to some extent understood, by the best mo-
ralists and legislators of China. But whatever acuteness
might be displayed in detecting the weaknesses and
foibles of man, no adequate skill was discovered in pro-
viding a remedy against them. The fallacy of the sys-
tem which is to cure every evil, consists in ascribing ori-
ginal virtue and independent power to human nature.
Self must be annihilated, and private views sacrificed to
public virtues, a general love to all, founded on perfect
virtue, and distinguished in its operations by fidelity and
integrity, must be created by a being whose heart is
prone to self-love, and utterly averse from the restmints
imposed by a higher power. Where such absurdities
and follies constitute the highest wisdom of which en-
lightened Pagans can boast, the necessity of Divine
Revelation as a source of infallible guidance, alike appli-
cable to the most opposite modifications of human de-
pravity, and the accompanying influences- of the Holy
Spirit to render it available, is seen in the strongest
light.

199

JwMtice y or righteousness is the next virtue in order on
the moral code. It is not alwavs easv to ascertain the
meaning of this and kindred terms from name writers,
who use them with much latitude of signification. Justice
represents what is right between man and man, flowing
from disinterested principles, and appropriate to some
cnrfl or social relation, not what is merely correct, but
what is generous and noble in sentiment. It is an ex-
ternal operation, opposed to benevolence, which is an
internal virtue. But it contains no notion similar to the
idea of that pure, perfect, independent property ascribed
by the Scriptures to Jehovah, as constituting the basis
and essence of his proceedings towards man. The sages
of China hare no idea of applying their conceptions of
natural justice, such as they are, to the relationship man
bears to God ; nor do they recognize the obligations of
human creatures to his moral government. That union
of justice and implicit obedience which marks the inter-
course between an immaculate ruler and his subjects, is
excluded from their ethical systems, which, however, seem
on some occasions darkly to intimate the ways of Provi-
deuce and the avenging footsteps of the Deity. Justice
is a term much applied to public-spirited individuals, who
undertake office on the approved principles of the sages,
and maintain high moral feeling in the discharge of their
duties. Propriety and rectitude are its constituent prin-
ciples. It is opposed at every point to sordid purposes
of gain, and inspires its votaries with a resolution to do
right, fearless of consequences.

According to the records of Chinese history', many such
men have stood forward, as the champions of liberty,
ready to sacrifice life in its defence. During the reign of

200 PROPRIETY.

the present emperor, two ministers exhibited, in a me-
morial complaining of abuses, an independent and deter-
mined spirit seldom equalled, at the close of which they
informed his majesty, that should he subject them to the
axe or boiling caldron, they were not afraid. The empe-
ror, however, declared that they were great and faithful
ministers, imbued with the spirit of celebrated ancient
statesmen, whose freedom of speech should not injure
their reputation : this, however, is a rare case. From the
use of this word to express charitable purposes, it may be
inferred that benevolence is considered as an act of justice
to the destitute. Orphans or others adopted into a family
are called children of justice : a charity school is a just
school, similar to the Rabbinical use of the Hebrew word
tsedaha. Any public institution, or object in which the
community have a common property, is designated by
this term. It is also used to denote fidelity in animals.
Uncorrupted faithfulness, which springs from perfect be-
nevolence, is essential to the character of a just man, whe-
ther in a public or private station. Such is the theory of
Chinese moralists on this point.

Propriety of deportment in civil stations, and accus-
tomed rites in religious worship, are of the utmost mo-
ment, as the external form in which the virtues of the
mind must be enshrined. If we may borrow the assistance
of etymology, — and it is by knowledge of language that
our acquaintance with popular customs and manners is
improved, — " the first idea of the term le, ' ceremony or
propriety,' is that of footstep, the footsteps or traces to
be observed in worshipping the gods : it is composed of
she, — as already mentioned, — ' supernatural manifesta-
tion,' and le, 'a vessel used in certain riles."' Whence

CEREMONIAL RITES. 201

the notion of intercourse with superior beings in rites of
sacrifice, seems to have had an early existence. Many of
those gods were deified men who had rendered important
services on earth. Others were deceased ancestors, whose
supposed presence rendered due decorum in the forms of
worship essential to its acceptableness. Propriety, there-
fore, demands special attention in the interment of the
dead. For since parents during life are protected by the
laws of filial piety from the morose demeanour or incon-
siderate levity of their children, so, when they are buried,
the rites of sepulture require to be performed in a devout
spirit, and with corresponding gravity of deportment.
Funeral honours would be deemed incomplete, even though
the prescribed regulations were observed to the letter, if
the countenance of the chief mourner assumed an improper
aspect.

Of so much moment is outward appearance, that cor-
rect feeling, how unequivocally soever it might be ma-
nifested, would be insufficient to atone for the want of due
order, or for any transgression of its forms. Hence Con-
fucius says, in funeral ceremonies the most difficult part
of the duty consists in the countenance. The same love
of ceremony pervades the constitution of society. It is
seen in the family, where it regulates domestic duties, by
assigning to each member his proper station, and exacting
from him punctilious attention to etiquette. It dictates
suitable modes of communication between host and guest,
controls personal behaviour, draws the line of demarcation
between individuals of different rank, and ordains proper
forms of intercourse in society. To the assumed import-
ance of propriety may be attributed the general politeness
for which the Chinese are distinguished. It is with them

202 i'iiophibty.

a national virtue, and forma part of their education. They
have a work, with which all scholars ought to be familiar,
expressly written on the subjects of dress ; mourning ; ce-
remonies at marriages and funerals; sacrifices; forms to
be observed at sacred places ; village feasts ; utensils ;
games, with other similar things. Since transition from
practical virtues to outward observances is among the ten-
dencies of human nature, vain forms may be multiplied,
where few or no solid proofs of moral excellence exist.
No people pride themselves on their urbanity more than
the Chinese; and if this accomplishment may be esti-
mated according to the amount of duplicity which it
involves, they certainly can urge strong claims to be con-
sidered as the politest people on the face of the earth ;
for, having insinuated itself into personal habits, it has
extended its influence through all relative connections and
dependencies, until it has entirely moulded the national
character into its own form. The ancients considered pro-
priety as the body in which important virtues were most
lucidly displayed ; but the spirit deemed essential to ani-
mate it, their descendants have sacrificed to the love of
outward appearance. It is a powerful spell to bind the
affections, warp the understanding, demoralise the con-
duct, and deprave the heart. If conscience ever rouse
them from lethargic slumbers to a sense of danger, they
are lulled into their wonted security by attention to mere
forms. Ceremonial observances are sanctioned by go-
vernment, and in various ways made to harmonise with
popular prejudice. The court, which dazzles by its splen-
dour, and overawes by its authority, with all the pomp of
circumstance attending sacrificial and other rites, nta the
example of this superstition, and is eagerly followed by

WISDOM. 203

the multitude, who venerate its proceedings as a transcript
of heaven and nature.

Wisdom is an attribute held in great esteem by the
Chinese. It is inseparably connected with holiness ; but,
alas ! how debased in its nature, when compared with the
holy intelligence created by divine influence. Inspired
men form a far more lowly estimate of themselves than
heathen sages, who do not scruple to assert their moral
perfection, and to arrogate properties appropriate only to
the Divinity. Though subjects which occupy their minds
are of very limited extent, they are celebrated as omnis-
cient beings describing a circle of universal influence.
The sage meditates in solitude on a few erroneous notions
which he has imbibed as first principles, until he persuades
himself that he has arrived at the impassable barrier of
perfect wisdom. Much is said in praise of constantly
passing backwards and forwards over the fields of know-
ledge, as a bird with untiring wing hovers over some en-
deared locality. Confucius says, "At fifteen I was de-
voted to literature ; at thirty I was fortified in doctrine ;
at forty I had no scruples ; at fifty I understood the de-
crees of heaven ; at sixty my ear was obedient (I com-
prehended whatever I heard), and at seventy I followed
the purposes of my heart without transgression." The
professed acquirements of sages are not only destitute of
all moral power over their characters to remind them of
their responsibility, and the duty of penitence at the foot-
stool of heaven, but, on the contrary, fill the mind with
pride and ambition, whose direct tendency is to withdraw
it from Ood, and elevate a frail, sinful mortal to the po-
sition He alone should occupy. Notwithstanding that
such epithets as profound, pure, sublime, and perfect, are

204

applied to their wisdom, its highest practical value is to
control human nature by the influence of its mysterious
character. Its professed object is human happiness, by
means of government and social order ; and the methods
of attaining it are meditation on heaven, earth, and man.
It is undeniable, that acquaintance with human nature is
essential to the legislator and philosopher ; but he who
is ignorant of the sacred Scriptures, though he obtain
much useful knowledge by studying the principles on
which men act towards each other, and their common aim
in mutual intercourse, cannot be said to have acquired
the true philosophy of the human mind or morals.

Sincerity, the last in order of this class of virtues, is
described as the first of inherent excellencies, and allied
to perfect intelligence.* It is the way by which heaven
holds intercourse with man, and the path in which human
beings should walk. It is the foundation of esteem and
influence, acquired in society by filial obedience, the ac-
credited mode of obtaining the confidence of supcriitrs,
which would he withheld from a disobedient son on the
ground of his supposed insincerity. Without a knowledge
of doctrine, perfect sincerity is unattainable. The first
class of moralists possess this virtue without solicitude to
acquire it, and freely pursue the invariable principle of
right without effort. From a section in the Chung Yung,

* The original term is Is tin, which menus, " ■ man of his ward; sin-
cere; unsuspicious ; unwavering; true to our' ■ word; truth; to believe; to
trust; faith." Native authorities define it, "words which remain unchanged."
Cfung, sincerity of intentum, precedes word* ; iin, sincerity of declaration,
succeed* tbem. According to this eiplanatic.n, cMhi? in the internal virtue;
■in is the external eipresaion of it. The sentiments in the test are drawn
pnBOJnaUj fmm the Chung Yung, a standard work on moral philosophy,
which uses chiiig, not sin , hut since J in, aa one of the five virtue*, is usually
rendered sracrn/y, the ill usl rations are perfectly relevant.

SINCERITY. 205

it appears that sincerity, as an original virtue of the mind,
from which perfect wisdom springs spontaneously, is pe-
culiar to the highest class of sages ; and that that sincerity
is found only in men of an inferior grade, which must be
attained subordinately to wisdom by a course of study :
but the two virtues are inseparable, for whichever pre-
exists in the mind, it generates the other. Perfection
may be thought a better rendering of the original on some
occasions than sincerity ; but it is difficult adequately to
express such Chinese terms by a single word, in tongues
now consecrated to the service of Christianity, on account
of their varied use and application to distinct objects by
different writers. The definition of the word is, " without
guile ; without admixture ; of one mind ; sincere ; true ;
honest; — sincerity; truth." If this virtue had been
chosen as a national characteristic, not only to be set at
defiance in practice, but to form the most striking con-
trast to existing manners, a more appropriate one than
sincerity could not have been found. So opposed is the
public and private character of the Chinese to genuine
sincerity, that an enemy might have selected it as ironi-
cally descriptive of their conduct, in contrast with their
pretensions. Falsehood, duplicity, insincerity, and ob-
sequious accommodation to favourable circumstances, are
national features remarkably prominent. These vices are
displayed most strongly towards those from whom benefits
are expected, and are quite consistent with contempt and
rude treatment of supposed inferiors. Giving credit to
the sages of their nation as wise observers of human na-
ture, their system was designed to be corrective of pre-
vailing evils, which we may therefore conclude to be
selfishness, injustice, indecorum, folly, and insincerity.

206 SIWCRRtTY.

Assuming outwardly, without a corresponding change of
heart, virtues opposed to these vices, because sanctioned
by names held in supreme veneration, the wide diversity
between sentiment and deportment, and the peculiarity of
their manners, seem to be accounted for. The social and
political relations can be discriminated only by those
whose sincerity is of the highest grade, — who alone can
trace the outlines of government for an empire, and com-
prehend the mode in which heaven and earth produce
and sustain the creation. External ornament, or display
of virtues really possessed, is contrary to the taste of wise
men, who describe the highest excellence, whether de-
nominated perfection, sincerity, reason, or virtue, as with-
out "sound or colour," and disposing him in whom it
dwells to pursue the noiseless tenour of his way without
ostentation and tumult, but yet with the greatest effect :
for while sincerity produces self-perfection, it issues in
practice entirely agreeable to reason, and overawes others
by its commanding influence. It is therefore essential to
the superior man, who duly estimates its importance as
the origin and consummation of all things.

In the section of the Chung Yung, from winch these
sentiments are taken, it is said, "benevolence is the source
of self-perfection, and knowledge the means of rendering
others perfect." The same authority supplies the fol-
lowing description of sincerity ; " the utmost sincerity is
interminable, unceasing, enduring, splendid, extensive,
and solid, each of which properties is rotated to the other
as cause and effect, while it ascends and displays its bril-
liancy. By a solidity that equals the earth, its sustaining
power is developed in the support of material objects; by
B tafUfiMi Hkd tpkodom emulative of heaven, they are

PERFECTION. 207

comprehended under its overshadowing influences; and
by an interminable extent and duration, they are rendered
absolutely perfect. The proprietor of this virtue cannot
be concealed ; for he will appear without showing him-
self, effect renovation without moving, and create perfec-
tion without acting : it is the law of heaven and earth,
whose way is solid, substantial, lofty, illustrious, vast,
and unchanging." Renovation of the human species is
the ultimate end to be attained by sincerity and its con-
comitant doctrines. But how presumptuous are the preten-
sions of deluded men, who undertake to guide others by
the darkness of their own depraved minds. Some ancient
worthies are said to equal heaven, — to be omniscient and
omnipresent, and to possess endless purity. Much stress
is laid on the demeanour in private, where, it is supposed,
motives to cultivate virtue are far fewer than when under
the eye of the world. The greatest inconsistency prevails
among moral writers in delineating, even on their own
plan, the character of the perfect sage. While Confucius
at one time exalts himself as impeccable and perfectly
holy, he at another confesses that there are four things
belonging to the superior man which he is unable to prac-
tise. First, his requirements from his son exceed the ser-
vices which he is able to render to his father ; secondly,
the service he demands from a minister he cannot perform
towards his prince; thirdly, the duties he enjoins on a
younger brother he fails to fulfil to his elder brother ; and,
fourthly, the obligations of friendship under which he is
laid he feels inadequate to discharge.

The superior man — a phrase in frequent use among
classical writers — is a practical character, satisfied with
his own sphere of influence, and diligent in performing its

THE SUPERIOR J

appropriate duties. He can enjoy wealth, and not be
corrupted by its influence ; — endure poverty, without being
betrayed into a murmuring spirit; — bear heavy afflictions
with the utmost resignation, and render civilities to stran-
gers in the spirit of genuine sympathy. If he fills an
elevated situation, he abhors contemptuous treatment of
inferiors ; and if he occupies a subordinate office, he dis-
dains obsequiously to Hatter the great. His moral feelings
exclude dissatisfaction ; the way of heaven above does not
superinduce fretfulness; the conduct of man below excites
no resentment; but he reposes in tranquillity, calmly
awaiting the will of Heaven, While he is upright and
firm, his own sayings are not carried into effect with blind
partiality, whether right or wrong. Confucius compares
him to an archer, who, when he fails to hit the target,
blames only himself. To attain this eminence, however,
his early career must have exemplified benevolence, jus-
tice, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity. The cultivation of
the fine arts, music, archery, horsemanship, writing, and
arithmetic, must also have yielded him pleasure. " A
heart of feeling and commiseration illustrates benevolence;
■ heart ashamed of vice displays justice ; a heart revereu-
tinl and respectful, accords with propriety; and a heart
which discriminates right from wrong, gives effect to wis-
dom : all these virtues are the original properties of our
nature, and are not infused into us from without." Such
is the opinion of Mencius. His predecessor mid prototype,
Confucius, remarks, " when solid properties prevail more
than ornamental acquirements, their possessor is a rustic;
and when embellishments exceed the more substantial
virtues, he is a coxcomb : but solidity and ornament,
blended in due proportion* constitute the superior man.

REWARDS OF VIRTUE. 209

Again, knowledge of correct principles is not so valuable
as love to them ; and love to them is less worthy of esteem
than delight in them/' — sentiments which a commentator
expounds by reference to different kinds of grain, whose
edible properties are first discriminated, then desired, and
afterwards used with pleasure ; hence knowledge pertains
to the existence of virtue ; desire or love involves a taste
for it without its attainment ; and delight presupposes its
possession with the highest relish.

Such are the opinions which influence the myriads of
human beings within the limits of the Chinese empire. If
true temporal prosperity must be based on the cultivation
of correct principles towards the sovereign of the universe,
how wretchedly deficient such systems leave man of all
the ordinary enjoyments of human life, which the least
favoured portion of the community in Christian countries
participate. The practical results of the system just re-
viewed will be seen in the next section on government,
which avowedly forms its plans on the principles laid down
by Confucius — " the instructor of ten thousand ages."

210

SECTION V.

POLITICAL STATS OF THE CHINESE — ANCIENT DYNASTIES — TARTAR CON-
QUEST— IMPERIAL FAMILY — PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS — SUPREME TRI-
BUNALS — DIFFERENT DEGREES OF NOBILITY.

Hitherto we have regarded man in his social and moral
condition, which ascertains his personal responsibilities
to the Supreme Ruler of the Universe. He is now to be
considered as a member of the body politic, subject to the
control of a regular system of government, whose con-
stitution, so far as it can be investigated, will throw con-
siderable additional light on the state of the public mind
in China, and on the position assumed by so large a
population towards the rest of the world. The collective
influence of three hundred millions of our species must,
under any circumstances, be of overwhelming importance ;
and whether that influence tends to enslave human souls
and augment the sum of human misery, or to promote
happiness and freedom commensurate with the circle
which it describes, is an inquiry on which no benevolent
mind can enter without the deepest solicitude. Our design
is not only to give a prominent outline of the constitution
of the Chinese government, and its operations on the
people when distributed into distinct communities, but to
isolate individuals, and to determine, from the mutual
influence of different classes, what is the effect of the

THE DYNASTIES HEA, 8HANG, CHOW. 211

whole administration on the persons, families, and pro*
perty of its subjects. The form of government subsisting
in China is absolute despotism, which descends by here-
ditary right, where there is no opposing will of the
emperor, to the nearest male heir of the crown, a law
precluding females having been enacted in the third
century of the Christian era.* In ancient times, China
was divided into numerous clans, each of which under its
own chieftain was constantly engaged in aggressions on
its neighbour, so that force of arms frequently prevailed
to set aside the direct succession to the throne. The
origin of the empire, extending backwards into remote
antiquity, is enveloped in an obscurity hitherto unpierced
by the feeblest ray of truth. The fabulous sera com-
mencing with Pwan-koo, which embraces eighty thousand
years, terminated about seven centuries after the Mosaic
date of the creation. The authentic annals, according to
the best historians, begin from the reign of Fuh-he, whom,
with some of his celebrated successors, we have already
described. The space of a thousand years elapsed from
this sovereign to Yu, the Noah of the Chinese, by whom
the first regular dynasty — Hea — was set up ; which hav-
ing existed in varied circumstances of historical interest
during four centuries, was succeeded by Shang, whose
entire duration comprehended about six hundred yean,
and then yielded up its destinies to Chow, which flourished
in all the vigour of political maturity for the space of eight
hundred years more.
These three dynasties exhibit the oldest and most

* The terms in which it wu enacted are, " From this time no female thai]
assist in the government ;" on which a commentator remarks,— 4 ' Eicrlkat
law, worthy of being a master."

p2

212

vmruors soveukton.

venerated forms of Chinese polity ; and to say the least,
have preserved patriarchal customs and manners in greater
simplicity and purity than any other. During the Shang
dynasty, seven years of great drought and famine com-
menced in China ; at the close of which, history relates,
the king went into a solitary place under mulberry bushes
to pray : he took the six sins of which human beings are
most commonly guilty, and charged them upon himself
(that is, made himself a vicarious sacrifice for the whole
nation), whereupon, before his supplications were ended,
the rain fell in torrents covering a space of several miles.
The king offered the following prayer in the mulberry
forest. " Do not for one man's perverseness take away
the lives of millions ; I confess I am guilty ; my govern-
ment is not economical; the nobles and the common
people are my subjects; have mercy upon them and pre-
serve them ; do not despise the desolate aud afflicted."
Eyin (a good minister who had been previously dismissed i
having been restored to the government, gave suitable
warnings and admonitions to the king, and soon after re-
quested leave to retire to his native village. Two things
are worthy of remark in this narrative: — the MHttckteoee
in point of time between this drought and the seven years'
famine in Egypt, both occurring as nearly as can be ascer-
tained about 1 720 years B. C.,* and the avowed efficacy
of prayer in removing a calamity acknowledged to be
justly inflicted for the BB of the nation. The king, as
the high priest of the empire, was not backward in a
season of distress to appeal to the Supreme Ruler, whom in
prosperity he iddom or never acknowledged. vVhetha

TYRANNICAL SOVEREIGN. 213

he directed his supplications to any other object than the
material heavens, is a question which cannot be solved ;
and yet chieftains, sages, and emperors in successive ages
have alike confessed their obligations to one Supreme
Existence by stated acts of worship and forms of prayer.
It is a sentiment of frequent occurrence in Chinese writers,
" Heaven rejects the wicked, whom therefore no efforts can
save, and protects the virtuous, against whom no enemy
can prevail :" sentiments exemplified in the destruction of
Shang, whose last kings contrasted with the first princes of
Chow, established on its ruins, exhibit the opposite points
of virtue and vice in the strongest light. Chow-sin and
an abandoned woman of his court inflicted the most ex-
quisite torments on the unoffending people, merely to gratify
an insatiable love of cruelty. A narrative of his infamous
conduct occupies a considerable space in the history of this
dynasty. To say that he was a sensualist, a debauchee,
a tyrant, a murderer, is a faint delineation of his detestable
character, unless each point be combined with all that is
diabolical in malignity, ruthless in tyranny, and revolting
in cruelty. The singular ferocity to which this w r retch
and his paramour attained, seems to require an illustra-
tion or two. His extravagance, which finally ruined him,
was first developed, says his faithful minister, in the use of
ivory chopsticks. To suit this elegance, splendid dishes
and costly viands* were provided, which the people
admired and imitated ; thus the king to gratify his
passion for extravagance ruined his country. The histo-
rian's account of him is, that in natural abilities he sur-
passed all his ministers ; that, with sagacity to repel reproof,

* It U carious that the*.* (Mica^u** in a note of Ok* coiniucutator are
to lie " ImmiV fret, ami the vbct-rm of U-opanif."

214

It BOA I. LL'XUR

eloquence to gloss over falsehood, muscular power to
overcome wild beasts, the loudest voice in the empire, and
pre-eminence of mental and physical force in all points,
his dissolute morals, from excessive devotion to wine and
Inst, sunk him far below the brutes. In his wars a female
was taken captive, who, like himself, delighted in the most
wicked and inhuman amusements, a great part of which
she derived from the tormenting of her fellow-creatures. To
evince his affection, her counsel was always followed ;
whom she loved he ennobled, and whom she disliked he
murdered. Persons were employed to compose obscene
songs, which were sung to wanton tunes, accompanied
with amorous dances. A terrace was erected in Pih-chih-
le nearly a mile broad and a thousand cubits high, wlmh
was seven years in building : there was a house of coral,
whose doors were garnished with gems, granaries were built
for the subsistence of the guards and servants of the esta-
blishment, and other apartments erected for dogs, horses,
and curiosities collected to fill them. A still more splendid
establishment was maintained at Sha-kew, where instru-
ments of music and military weapons were extensively
accumulated; there was a lake of wine surrounded with
trees from which delicate viands were suspended, and
among which numerous men and women passed long nights
in scenes of debauchery and drunkenness. The Chinese,
however, in theory true to their principles, while they
relate that the wickedness of these demons in human
form must meet with their reward, assure us that they
were both iguominiously slain by a successful revolt of
their subjects.

Chow, which flourished four 01 live centimes before
Christ, is considered by the Chinese as the best model of

DYNASTIES FROM B.C. 600 TO A.D. 700. 215

government among the ancients; and there were then,
according to Confucius's history, which comprehends two
hundred and fifty years of this period, not fewer than a
hundred and twenty states. The principles of its govern-
ment were denominated, by way of eminence, royal doc-
trines, and are often proudly referred to by philosophers
and ethical writers as the basis of sound legislation. Not
long subsequent to this period, seven nations contended
for the supremacy, of which one, named Tsin, prevailed
over the other six, and divided the empire into thirty-six
principalities ; but its dominion was of very short duration.
To it the Eastern and Western Han dynasties succeeded
for the space of four hundred years, two centuries before
and two after the commencement of the Christian era.
The sovereigns Heaou-ching-te and Heaou-gae-te reigned
over China when the Saviour of the World sojourned in the
land of Judea. The province of Ho-nan, of which L6-
yang was the capital, seems to have been the seat of this
dynasty. At the same period, the three states Wei, Shuh,
and Woo, were contending for superiority, the events of
which gave rise to a celebrated historical novel called " The
Three Kingdoms," whose style and arrangement are much
admired by the Chinese literati. Towards the close of
this once famous dynasty, the capital was removed to
Nanking, in the province of Keang-nan, near whose coast
Chow-shan, the island recently taken by the British arms,
is situated. Six dynasties, comprising altogether about three
hundred and fifty years, now followed Han in rapid suc-
cession. Tang, from which the Chinese of Fuh-keen pro-
vince still proudly designate themselves men of Tang,
succeeded the " six dynasties," commencing from about the
middle of the seventh century and closing in the ninth.

i-KUO AND MING UYNABTIE!

The " five dynasties," wliich together did not exceed the
term of fifty years, took their rise about this period.
Sung was the designation ofthe succeeding family, which
maintained its supremacy for the space of three hundred
years, until the rise of the Yuen or Mung-Koo Tartar
dynasty, whose first emperor was C/iei/iiar, called by
European writers Coblai r but it did not flourish more
than seventy or eighty years, although it seems to have
been very active both in warlike and literary pursuits.
The subsequent and last Chinese dynasty, Ming, existed
about two hundred and fifty years, during which Peking
first became the capital of the empire; whose failing
fortunes ended in an entire revolution of the supreme
authority, and made way for the ' great pure dynasty,' the
Tartar family that now occupies the throne.

The Manchow Tartar Prince, when about to subjugate
China, wrote down seven grievances, or causes of indig-
nation l|^ as his motives for undertaking the war, and
spread them with great solemnity before Heaven, whose
aid he confidently invoked. " The first crime to be re-
venged," says the Tartar monarch, " is the commencement
of hostilities by the Chinese; the second crime to be
revenged, is the violation of a solemn treaty not to pass
certain boundaries; for, though ratified by an oath, and
the conditions thereof engraven on a stone, to the effect
that whichever nation transgressed the limits should be de-
stroyed, Ming, nevertheless, crossed the frontier with troops
to iMtftl ray foes; the third crime to be revenged is, that
when I, agreeably to my oath, attacked him for committing
depredation! in my territory, he disregarded the former
treaty, complained of my conduct, pm to death my envoy,

uxlalM ten ofmj wbjecta whon ha had Mixed on the

MANCHOW TARTAR DYNASTY. 217

borders; the fourth crime to be revenged is, Ming's
having assisted the Ychih, and caused my daughter,
already betrothed, to be given to another person of the
Mung-koo nation ; the fifth crime to be revenged is,
Ming's having expelled my people from the Chae-ho hill
and places adjacent, which were for many generations my
frontiers, and cultivated by ray subjects, who were still
not allowed to reap the fruits of their labour ; the sixth
crime to be revenged is, the insult offered to me in a letter
sent by a special envoy purposely to vilify me, while
entire credit was given to the statement of Yehih, who
had committed sins against Heaven ; the seventh crime to
be revenged is, the conduct of Ming in exciting nations
whom I had subdued to rebel against me, and aiding the
sovereign to recover his kingdom. When proximate
states contend, the rule is — obey the will of Heaven and
conquer — oppose it and perish. How can the slain live
again ? Who can give back the people taken captive ?
Why does Ming cherish resentment against me alone?
Nations have united their forces against me, and Heaven
has overthrown them, while my country has flourished
like the spring. Ming assists the Ychih, while under
severe chastisement, whereby he opposes the will of
Heaven, and confounds right and wrong."

To revenge himself for these seven injuries, was the avowed
purpose of the Manchow Prince in the subjugation ofChina,
whose success became the source of the Great Pure Dy-
nasty — the appellation by which the reigning family has
always designated itself. Like other royal families, how-
ever, the Manchow Tartar is not satisfied with the honours
conceded by simple facts, but must seek to adorn its
annals with fiction, and to dignify its descent by the fable

218

LEGENDS OF THE ORIGIN

of a supernatural origin. Traditional genealogy is ap-
pealed to, no less by him who glories in the acquisition of
the empire by the sword and the bow, than by the lineal
descendants of Yaou and Shun. Lakes and mountains,
felicitous birds and rivers, divine births, and supernatural
interposition in the hour of danger, are the extraordinary
characteristics by which the future glory of the Tartar
dynasty was first revealed. The Tartars, probably to
conciliate the Chinese, avow their firm reliance on the
inscrutable decrees of* Heaven, by which corrupt dynasties
perish, and others rise on their ruins to perpetuate a
virtuous influence. A divine magpie, called the bird of
glad tidings, was the precursor of the family glory of the
Chinese Tartars, first, by placing a certain fruit in the
garments of an ancient female ancestor, by which, while
bathing in a pool of water at the foot of the long white
mountain, she became pregnant, and immediately brought
forth a son of extraordinary form, who could speak as
soon as he was born, and to whom it was announced,
" Heaven has begotten you to give stability to disturbed
nations." When he lost his mother, who disappeared
shortly after his birth, he placed himself, it is said, in a
bark, and floated down the stream of a certain river, on
the bank of which he at length framed a scat of willows
and sat down. His fame soon attracted the attention of
contending chieftains, one of whom, struck with his won-
derful appearance, spoke of him to his own clan, who
came out into the desert to question him respecting his
origin. On hearing him declare that he was born of a
Mtastift] it-male, and was ordained by Heaven to restore
them to tranquillity, they all exclaimed, " Heaven has
brought forth a holy one," and at once appointed him to

OF THJB TABTAB DYNASTY. 219

be their king. Their abode was fixed in a wilderness east
of the long white mountain, which they denominated
M wan-chow. The second incident connected with the
felicitous interposition of the magpie, is said to have
occurred when, through an insurrection of the people, all
the family had been murdered but one, who ran away
and escaped his pursuers, from the circumstance of a mag-
pie alighting on his head, which caused him to be mis-
taken for the trunk of an old tree. From this story the
Tartars venerate the magpie, prohibit its being shot, and
have an annual ceremony in commemoration of the event
on the spot where it happened.

The next person of eminence, now designated the sixth
ancestor, having vindicated the honours of his family,
and reinstated it in its ancient glory, inherited the
name of Gae sin keo-16, the Chinese mode of spelling
the Tartar name of the extraordinary youth just referred
to, the two last syllables of which are transmitted to his
descendants, together with the distinctive badge of a red
girdle, as the ensign of hereditary dignity. The words
4j£g «WJ mwan chow, by which the Chinese spell mantsJutr
or manstchoo mean in Chinese a full or complete island ;
but as they are, probably, the mere sounds of the Tartar
appellation, they furnish no clue to the meaning of the
original term.

Such is a brief chronological sketch of the vicissitudes
which have befallen the vast empire whose government
we now proceed to examine.

The emperor, designated Imperial Supreme, Holy Lord,
Most High, His Majesty — literally the Court — with other
similar epithets, is the source of all authority in the legis-
lative us well as executive department of the state. Pe-

220 MINISTERS OF STATE.

king has been the capital of the empire since the reign of
Yung-lo, # in the centre of which stands the imperial
city, five miles in circumference, enclosing within it the
sacred city, which occupies a third of its dimensions. The
capital has nine gates, the number to correspond perhaps
to the nine divisions of the Chinese territory after the
Deluge. Within the meridian gate, the imperial council
chamber is situated, where the ministers of the sovereign
assemble to deliberate on national affairs, the number of
whom is six, three Tartars, who take precedence, one
being prime minister, and three Chinese : their designa-
tion is " worshipping assistants," persons who have done
obeisance by knocking heads, on being appointed to
office — an initiatory ceremony similar in its import to that
of kissing hands in the British court. The most ancient
official title, under the dynasty Hea, denoted " objects of
complacency and confidence." Nobles of the first rank
who conducted the sacred music connected with the great
state ceremonies, were honoured with the appellations
great and perpetual, as expressive of their desire that the
powers whom the imperial family worshipped would per-
petuate its dominion through all ages. In the province
of Sze-chuen, during the dynasty Chow, the chief
ministers were called, " great teacher," as the instructor
and example of his majesty; " great assistant," as the
only solid basis of support ; and " great preserver," be-
cause it was their duty to protect their sovereign both in
the practice of virtue and the administration of justice.
The same titles, with the exception of " inferior " substi-
tuted for " great " to denote their subordination, were
applied to assistant statesmen, who attended on princes of

* A.D. 1423.

TnBIR VARIOUS TITLES. 221

the blood or on the heir apparent, whose name they were
permitted to assume ; but such epithets with the present
government are merely honorary. It was under the Tang
dynasty that the title " great learned scholar," applied by
the reigning family to its six chief ministers and other
officers about the court, was first introduced as significant
of the statesman's duty, which was to take care of the
government library and records, and to instruct kings and
princes. In the eleventh century, during the Sung dy-
nasty, literary halls were instituted, from which ministers
of state and other officers were selected, who were dis-
tinguished with titles expressive of the nature of their
functions. Great variety of honours, as might be ex-
pected from the diversity of administration in this long
period of Chinese history, were distributed by the em-
perors among their dependents and friends. In the
offices of the first ministers of the state ten subordinate
persons perform the duties of secretaries and clerks, on
whom it devolves to record the substance of the imperial
will delivered at the daily audiences granted to ministers,
in three books kept for the purpose — one to preserve
the sovereign's sentiments and sayings generally, another
to record his special commands, and a third to contain his
replies to memorials sent from the provinces. Various
changes in the administration have been made under the
Tartar dynasty ; the present, consisting of four principals
and two assistants, alternately Tartar and Chinese, was
introduced by Keen-lung, who began his reign near the
middle of the eighteenth century. The assistants, how-
ever, being generally absent from court on special em-
bassies or in the character of provincial governors, tht*
four principals, associated with the presidents of the six

222 DUTIES OF STATESMEN.

supreme courts, the head of the imperial clan, the mili-
tary council, and other courts, assemble by express com-
mand to deliberate on important questions of state policy.
Their duties comprise attendance on grand state cere-
monies, civil and religious; such as sacrifices to the
heavens, the earth, human spirits, and local deities;
coronations of emperors; the bestowment of titles on
members of the imperial family ; and the presentation of
memorials to the emperor. A special court is appointed
through which remonstrances, petitions, and official docu-
ments addressed to his Majesty, are to pass to the minis-
ters, who are charged with the duty of laying them before
the sovereign. Memorials of an ordinary nature may be
received in the Manchow, Chinese, and Mung-koo Tartar
languages, for each of which secretaries and interpreters
are attached to this court. In some cases, which are
specified, they may be sent sealed to the emperor, but
the usual practice is to send them to any of the " six
boards " whom the matter may concern, or to the secre-
tary of state for the home department. Different regula-
tions have been adopted at different periods, for the pur-
pose of avoiding, on the one hand, pompous, verbose,
memorials, without, on the other, discouraging such as are
useful and important. The law of the case is, that this
court may reject open communications which are not
according to the official standard, either in the number of
words employed, or the subject-matter of their address ;
and that the ministers of state are authorized to examine
all despatches sent to the emperor, except such as relate
to foreign nations and to secret affairs in the provinces,
which are ordered to be transmitted in an envelope under
seal. Imperial edicts, composed by the Han-lin college,

THE HAN-LIN COLLEGE. 223

after they have been transcribed by the Chinese and
Tartar officials, are returned to the ministers, whose duty
it is to apply the imperial seal.

Haying had occasion to mention the Han-lin college,—
" Pencil-forest-hall," which, though distinguished by a
literary title, is chiefly political in its constitution and
objects, it may be proper to introduce a brief notice of it
in this place. It has two presidents, styled learned direc-
tors of the hall, a Tartar and a Chinese, of whom the
former assumes the higher rank. There are twelve officers,
six of each class, called learned readers, and learned ex-
positors, of whom the former read sacred books to his
majesty. Besides other readers and expounders divested
of the appellative " learned," there is a certain number,
who, from the meaning of their titles, appear to be devoted
to the duty of selecting, revising, correcting, and arrang-
ing materials for publication. All national works are by
command of his majesty edited under the sanction of this
body, the names of whose superior officers are often in-
serted in the prefaces. Other officers, from their designa-
tions, appear to discharge the duties of superintending
public proclamations. One of the members of this body
fills the office of a recorder of events that transpire at the
capital. It is the professed object of the imperial govern-
ment to select ministers of state from this institution,
according to their degree of literary eminence, some of
whose members have frequently been appointed to the
highest civil offices in the empire. It is not a seminary of
instruction for the youth of the nation, but a senate to
test literary attainments, and confer honorary degrees
which often prove a passport to the most lucrative and
influential posts in the empire. So much honour attends

224 IMPERIAL CENSORS.

the acquisition of these degrees, that vast efforts are made
by numerous competitors to pass the examination with
credit. The honours, however, may be purchased, but not
without considerably reducing their value in the estima-
tion of the people. Eminent classical scholars by virtue
of their attainments are attached to the college, and the
descendants of philosophers and sages, such as Confucius
and Mencius, are members by birthright.

Various offices are established for the purpose of regu-
lating the personal and domestic affairs of the sovereign.
There is one to take cognizance of the branches of the
imperial house, whose presiding officers are styled consan-
guineous kings, those who are related to the imperial
blood, kings of principalities ; the name of the thirty-six
states into which China was divided, when it was first
brought under the dominion of one ruler ; Tartar nobles
of high rank, generals, and princes of the royal family.
Among appointments relating to the interior arrangements
of the palace, are those which control her majesty's and
the princes' households, and superintend the superior
officers of state. The ancient office of imperial censors,
advisers, remembrancers, examiners, or historians, as they
have been variously designated, is still preserved. Two
presidents, a Tartar and a Chinese, and four assistants,
constitute the members of this court at the capital. It is
their duty to exercise strict surveillance over the affairs of
the prince, the magistracy, and the people ; they are also
allowed to offer their opinions in writing to the sovereign
on all subjects of a public nature, but not to interfere
with his private or domestic concerns. It is generally
understood that their advice, how contrary soever to the
will of his majesty, shall not endanger their lives, though

THE SIX SUPREME BOARDS. 225

there are cases in which this rule has been violated ; still
if they presume to differ from him they must expect the
rejection of their documents and his severest displeasure.
Not only are they present in the metropolis of the empire,
but in every province, where they act as spies on the local
authorities, and as commissioners of surveillance and
inquiry, which indeed is their chief modern employment.
The ancient duties of these officials were to record the
imperial will, two of whom stood in the emperor's pre-
sence, one on his right hand to make a memorandum of
his movements, the other on his left to transcribe his
sayings.

But passing on to more public matters, the six supreme
courts, boards, or tribunals, as the term may be rendered,
are the principal springs of the machinery employed in
the operations of the Chinese government ; the depart-
ments of which are magistracy, revenue, national rites,
military affairs, punishments, and public works. These
may be called the heads of the six divisions to which the
laws of the land are reduced ; and hence, by reviewing
the extent and details of the authority of each board,
access is obtained to a general knowledge of the laws.
Of the boards in the order above specified, the first is the
Board of Civilians, for superintending officers of all ranks
throughout the empire, according to its title, which ap-
plies to several official grades, from the emperor down to
a writer in a government office. It is composed of kings
and princes of the Tartar races, both the Mung-koo and
M wan-chow, and of Chinese civilians. It is distinguished
by the elevation and dignity of its members, by the num-
ber of its literary and ordinary assistants, and its official
superiority to all other boards, whose officers are con-

Q

226 THE BOARD OF CIVILIANS.

strained to attend its sittings whenever business is trans-
acted. Members of the imperial family, though not
allowed to take any part in the proceedings, are required
to be present in all its assemblies, and to report to the
emperor any irregularity which may occur. Since it is
composed of the classes of officers already mentioned, it
would appear to form a house of the first estates of the
realm to represent the principal tribes of the empire, all
of which seem to have delegates but the Mohammedans,
who do not constitute part of it, unless indeed officers
from the " foreign court," which was established by the
reigning family for the Mohammedan cantons, with the
dependant states of Thibet and Tartary, who are expressly
required to be present at its deliberations, be allowed to
maintain their interests; of this, however, there is no
direct evidence.

This board is one of vast influence, since it has the
direction of all civil promotions, is responsible for the
proper supply of vacant offices, examines into the perio-
dical reports of the conduct of civilians, and awards
punishment to official delinquents throughout the empire.
But patronage is not the only power vested in it ; it be-
longs to this board also to ascertain the rank of different
officers, to regulate the laws by which they are to be
appointed, promoted, rewarded, or punished, and to take
cognizance of their merit and demerit according to a
graduated scale, carefully preserved in every province,
and regularly transmitted for its scrutiny. Some of the
prevailing regulations are directly opposed to the spirit
and tenor of European notions. Official persons guilty of
certain offences in China are deprived for a term of years
of their honours and emoluments, but not without the

THE BOARD OF CIVILIANS. 227

hope of regaining both by a course of good behaviour
during their period of degradation. The same hope of
restoration to favour, on condition that their deportment
is suitable, animates those who have been banished to the
frontier ; for the theory of the board is not to consider
mere degradation for misconduct as tantamount to entire
exclusion from office ; but to decide each case by its
individual merits, after the term of punishment has expired.
Promotion is avowedly based on the same principle of
personal desert. Civilians who have served their country
well are advanced several steps, and their names and
honours on promotion are inserted in the Peking Gazette
for general circulation. Each of these degrees of rank
equals one year ; hence an officer having served success-
fully three or four years is advanced so many grades,
and extraordinary merit on particular occasions is esti-
mated as so many years' service ; while one who has been
degraded four or five steps may be restored to his honours
and emoluments by as many years' meritorious behaviour.
Officers found guilty of offences are punished by blows,
fines, degradation, banishment, or dismissal ; but may be
restored to their rank after they have been dismissed, if
they can pay for it, and are recommended by good con-
duct. Since this board takes cognizance of the court of
the royal family, establishments for managing national
affairs within the palace, the household of the sovereign,
the colleges and courts of Peking, together with all official
institutions in the provinces, necessarily involving difficult
questions of state policy, its duties must be of a very
arduous and complicated nature. Despatch in the per-
formance of their public functions is not only urged on the
supreme courts by the pressure of business, but secured

Q 2

228 THE BOARD OF CIVILIANS.

by law, which allows only five days for consultation on
any matter referred by the sovereign.

Leave of absence is granted to officers on the death of
their parents, on account of sickness, to offer oblations
and sacrifices at the tombs of ancestors, to collect their
bones for preservation in an urn, or to remove them to
other graves, to attend their parents in sickness and old
age, and perform other important domestic duties. It is
a matter of necessity with officers on the death of parents
to retire from the public service three years — the period of
mourning required by the principles of filial piety. But
the length of time granted for these objects, and on official
business, is carefully prescribed, and its transgression vi-
sited with fines or degradation.

Public servants in China are punished not merely for
personal misdeeds, but for supposed neglect of duty, when
great calamities occur from fires, the overflowing of a
river, the low state of cultivation, robberies, murders,
evasion of the law by smugglers, embezzlement of pro-
perty by inferior officers, drought, earthquakes, locusts,
diminution of the revenue, and oppressive exactions from
the people. These occurrences, and others like them, if
not reported to his immediate superior by the officer under
whose jurisdiction they take place, occasion the infliction
of fines, or dismissal from office. But when secret so-
cieties, formed for seditious purposes, whose members as
a pledge of mutual fidelity sometimes sip each other's
blood, rise in open rebellion against the government, the
officers of the district in which the insurrection occurs are
much more severely punished, on the ground of mal-
administration as an exciting cause, or for want of
proper vigilance, by which the evil might have been

THE BOARD OF REVENUE. 229

prevented. Besides general rules, out of which numerous
cases arise to require the interposition of this board, the law
descends to the most minute and trivial occurrences, which
amidst so many really important affairs are necessarily
neglected. The principle involved, however, shows that
the system of Chinese legislation is based on the respon-
sibility of superiors for the conduct of their immediate
dependents, irrespective of impracticabilities for which
Chinese laws make no provision; so that each official
person, from those near the throne, who occupy the
largest sphere of delegated influence, descending step
by step to the very lowest rank, has a portion of the
community under his charge, for whose misconduct he is
accountable. Should an untoward occurrence inflict
injury on the state, it is attributed to culpable conduct in
the responsible officer, though really innocent, for which
he is liable to be punished. Governors of provinces, and
imperial commissioners, are exposed to the loss of life,
as well as office, if their official acts terminate unfa-
vourably. The recent treatment of Lin, at Canton, is
an example of the perilous responsibility of office in
China.

The next in order is the Board of Revenue, literally the
board of population, because the revenue is derived from
the people over whom this board presides, whose numbers
and condition must be ascertained before the resources of
the empire can be made available. Revenue is raised by
taxes on the land, which are paid partly in grain and
partly in money, according to the nature of the soil, and
the kind of produce it yields. In the early history of
the Tartar dynasty a census of the whole population was
taken, for the twofold object of levying a poll tax, and

230 THE BOARD OF REVENUE.

ascertaining the number of males capable of military
service. This tax was afterwards blended with the land
tax, and finally interdicted ; but the census was restored
under other sovereigns. It was taken once in three or
five years, by means of a report which the heads of tens
and hundreds in each district made through the local
magistrate to officers charged with its transmission to the
emperor. The professed design of this enactment was,
to be able to apportion government supplies according to
the exigencies of the people in times of drought, famine,
pestilence, and inundations in particular districts. The
mode of carrying it into effect resembles that of the
Egyptians, in requiring each family to have a list of its
inmates suspended on a board outside the door, for the
information of the police officer, who is expected to sup-
ply the government with correct returns. This method,
if faithfully observed, would fix the amount of the popu-
lation with great accuracy; but as the Chinese have
several reasons for representing their families to be
smaller than they are, false statements are, no doubt,
frequently made. Many of the rules, by which this
object is sought to be attained, are not only vexatious,
but altogether impracticable ; especially when applied to
visitors in private houses, to strangers sojourning at
temples, mosques, and other religious establishments, the
heads of which are responsible in law for all their inmates,
as well temporary as stated residents. Very different
opinions have prevailed respecting the extent of the po-
pulation of China, but no one who casts his eye over its
immense territory, and considers the crowded state of its
occupants, will be surprised that a large estimate has
been framed of their numbers, which from native records,

THE BOARD OF REVENUE. 231

not intended for the perusal of foreigners, seem, in less
than a hundred years, to have augmented fifteen-fold:
since at the beginning of the eighteenth century it was
under twenty-four millions ; and at the close of it,
according to returns from the provinces, upwards of three
hundred and seven millions, showing, as the emperor
Kang-he observes, who states the fact, an increase of nearly
fifteen-fold. The efficient support, control, and protec-
tion of so many millions, necessarily requires large re-
sources of wealth and intelligence.

It will now be our object briefly to describe the
methods of raising the revenue, with the other branches
of public business superintended by this board. The
land tax is fixed at so much an acre, according to the
quality of the soil, and the amount raised — a certain sum
having been deducted for expenses — is remitted from
each province. The officers who collect this portion of
the revenue are often guilty of oppressive and iniquitous
exactions, from which more is suffered by the people
than any other official department. The sum raised
annually for the service of the state in Pih-chih-le, the
province in which the court resides, is nearly two
millions of taels of silver; in round numbers about six
hundred thousand pounds sterling, from which two hun-
dred and eighty thousand pounds are retained for current
expenses. Ho-nan, which is the most productive of all
the provinces, remits nearly three millions of taels of
silver, and retains little more than one-eighth of its re-
venues for local expenses. Canton raises something
short of nine hundred thousand taels, from which two
hundred and forty-four thousand are deducted. Kwei-
chow, which it* the least productive of the whole, raises

232

seventy thousand taels, out of which it expends twenty-
nine thousand. These sums are totally inadequate to
the expenses of the empire, and hence a large field is
open for extortion and oppression, to which recourse is
had for supplies needed by the state, but not sanctioned
by the laws. Still, besides the amount supplied in
bullion, there are articles of consumption of which the
government maintains a strict monopoly ; and store-
houses for grain contributed by the people, who raise
annually upwards of three millions three hundred thou-
sand measures; one-third being rendered by the province
of Keang-soo, for the conveyance of which from all parts
of the empire ten thousand boats are employed. Salt
is a strictly government monopoly, superintended by this
board. In one year of a late emperor its consumption
amounted to nearly six millions and a half of yin (a yin
is upwards of a hundred -weight). Jiu-seug, the best of
which is said to be found in Manchow Tartary, is super-
intended by the same authority, which gives to the Tartars
the exclusive privilege of searching for it under the eight
banners of the empire; and severely punishes those who
presume to do so without leave. Mines of the precious
and common metals are sources of public wealth, from
which the government expects its prescribed proportion.
Of the silver, copper, tin, iron, and lead mines in differ-
ent parts of the empire, which might yield revenue, some
are permitted to be worked and others forbidden, without
any reason being assigned, but probably from fear of
exhausting their resources. The precious metals, except
by weight as any other commodity, are not employed in
circulation. Red copper is the only coin current in China,
a thousand of which (called tseen) make a tael or leant/.

THE BOABDOF REVENUE. 233

The mint, limited though it be, is under the care of this
board, with occasional assistance from the board of works.
In the province of Yun-nan, "gold sand' 9 (kin-sha) is
found in some of the rivers, of which the government
expects a portion annually, according to the amount
collected.

The transit of goods affords an opportunity of taxing
them, whether it refers to imports, exports, or the in-
ternal trade. A small manuscript volume, entitled,
" Regulations of the Custom-house dues at Canton,"
contains the rules by which foreign vessels are allowed to
trade with China, and the duties imposed on articles of
traffic between other provinces and Canton. It begins
with foreign ships, whose admeasurement and cargo are
rated according to the country from which it comes. The
import dues of a foreign ship are eleven hundred and
twenty-five taels, nine mace, six candareens : the export
dues five hundred and thirty-three taels, eight mace of
silver : the amount exacted on each article is also stated.
Comparing the necessities of the empire with the sums
yielded from this and other sources, it cannot but be
obvious that the Chinese, whatever they may allege to
the contrary, deem foreign trade of too much importance
to be sacrificed to trifling rules of etiquette; for even
with all the provision made by the government, pecuniary
supplies are still inadequate to the demands of the state
without unacknowledged fees and assessments, which in
the foreign trade amount to large sums. The various
custom-house duties levied at the confluence of large
rivers inland, as well as on the sea-coast, may be sup-
posed to yield a considerable annual income; but, after
all, the local officers derive the greatest profit from such

234 THE BOARD OF REVENUE.

resources. The Chinese, who from time immemorial had
devised the agricultural tax as their permanent revenue,
have never availed themselves fully of the commercial
capabilities of their country, and herein appears their
most remarkable deficiency as statesmen. The board of
revenue takes cognizance of the expenditure, as well as
the collection of the public money. Portions of it are
distributed among the different boards; among military
officers, civilians, judges, the superintendents of mono-
polies, custom-houses, and local magistrates, with various
other officers ; all which sums, as it regards the time and
mode of disbursement, are regulated by this board.
Salaries and allowances to members of the royal family are
paid in kind, and in bullion : and though the sums appear
but small, yet from the numerous dependents on the
celestial treasury, its disbursements must be very consi-
derable. To a prince of the highest rank an annual
allowance is granted of ten thousand taels* of silver, and
twelve thousand measures of rice ( 3p shih, 133 lbs).
Tartar kings, who do not reside at court, are allowed
two thousand five hundred taels, and forty pieces of silk.
A princess has only four hundred taels, unless she be
married to a foreign prince at a distance from Peking,
and then her allowance is increased to a thousand. The
emoluments allowed by the crown to the governor of
Peking are fifteen thousand taels ; to the treasurer nine
thousand, and to the judge one thousand. Officers of
government have both pay and allowances; and as an
instance of the small nominal amount of salary, one of
the highest rank in Peking may be adduced, which is
only one hundred and eighty taels of silver, and one

* Each tael is about six shillings sterling.

THB BOARD OP REVENUE. 236

hundred and eighty measures of rice annually. When
this board has supplied the court, the ciril service, the
army, and the navy, with the necessary sums, it bestows
rewards on the troops, and grants benevolences to those
parts of the empire which have suffered from pestilence,
famine, or any other calamity.

Part of the revenue derived from the land tax is left in
the provinces to defray the expense of national sacrifices.
The sums appropriated to individual deities are exceedingly
small, almost contemptible, for such an empire as China :
but the gods are very numerous, and the supreme govern-
ment fixes the grant from an apprehension, that if no
provision were made, the service would either be performed
in a despicable manner, or become a source of oppression
to the inhabitants of local districts ; since sacrifices are
offered to the genii of mountains, the demons of rivers,
and the spirits of ancient worthies, not by any regular
order of priesthood, but by the district magistrate, who
superintends numerous temples dedicated to the divinities
of the empire.* The founder of the Chinese monarchy is
allowed twenty taels annually for sacrifice, with a small
sum for incidental expenses. The temple dedicated to the
patron saint of silk culture is allowed one hundred and
thirty-three ; the god of the civilians, forty-five, and of the
military, only sixteen taels annually ; but since there are
temples in every district,f the expense amounts to some-
thing considerable throughout China. These sacrifices
are offered in the spring and autumn, when deputies are
sent from the capital to the native places of officers who

* The temples in China dedicated to Confucius alone are numberad at
1,560.
t Houses dedicated to idols m Canton province only, amount to 1,337.

236 THE BOARD OF RITES.

fell in the wars with the Meaou-tsze, for the purpose of
sacrificing to their manes on altars erected at the public
expense in commemoration of their valour. It is obvious
from such a state of public affairs, that with the best in-
tentions and the utmost care of the heads of the govern-
ment, their inferiors in office cannot be prevented from
exacting contributions from the people under various pre-
texts, but really for the sake of enriching themselves.

The Board of Rites corresponds in the number and
rank of its officers to the Board of Revenue. To persons
not conversant with the etiquette of the East, for which
China stands pre-eminent among the nations, the numerous
Volumes occupied in describing the duties of this board
would be a matter of surprise. Court etiquette is most
minutely explained in the authority under consultation.
The rites and ceremonies peculiar to the coronation of an
emperor, the enthronement of an empress, the creation of
nobles, the elevation of ladies of the palace to superior
rank, and the etiquette to be observed when the sovereign
goes in state on a campaign, on a tour of pleasure into
Tartary and the southern provinces of China, and even
when he compliments her imperial majesty by a visit to
her apartments on festive occasions, are all most minutely
detailed.

On all occasions of public ceremony connected with
the state, the Board of Rites determines the insignia of
official rank appropriate to each department, and the
persons by whom they are to be worn. The ceremonial
observances of a coronation are numerous and imposing,
from the religious and civil rites blended together, in
sacrifices offered to the heavens, to imperial progenitors,
and to the gods of the land and grain, by his majesty in

THE BOARD OF RITES. 237

person the evening prior to the solemnity; from the
numerous topical deities whose favour he invokes, the
variety of omens examined in divination, according to im-
memorial custom, and the multitude of astrological signs
consulted by soothsayers of different orders. The acts
and movements of every official personage, with the pre-
cise number of prostrations, kneelings, reverences, bow-
ings, and other gestures, the quarter of the heavens towards
which they are to be directed, the doors of the different
halls through which the procession is to pass, and the
proper position of individuals relative to the throne and
the incense altar near which they stand, according to their
rank and the nature of the solemnity, are described with
the greatest minuteness.

There are laws of etiquette applicable to kings of the
imperial blood, and ordinary kings, who on receiving
favours are commanded to return thanks on the monthly
court day, some of whom are admitted within the
" great pure gate " to perform the ceremony, while others
are obliged to perform it outside. From those who
receive promotion, the homage required is three times
kneeling and nine times striking the forehead on the
ground; those who are presented with apparel by his
majesty must kneel twice and strike the forehead six
times; but if the imperial gifts consist only of food,
once kneeling and thrice striking the head is sufficient.
Foreign ambassadors, when admitted to an imperial
audience, as well as Tartar kings to whom the above laws
apply, must at a given signal perform the ceremony three
times repeated, of three kneelings and nine prostrations,
during which the music is playing to the tune of lung-pimg f
" a splendid humiliation."

238 THE BOARD OF RITES.

These degrading observances are equally required from
ambassadors of the first potentates in Europe, and the
envoys of their majesties of Corea, Cochin China, Tonking,
Siam, the Loo-choo islands, and every little dependency
in or near the Chinese sea, to whom injunctions are per-
emptorily addressed on any supposed ground of offence.
Articles of tribute brought by foreign ambassadors are
carefully specified, together with the donations bestowed
by his imperial majesty on their sovereigns in return. The
pope, designated in Chinese, " The king of renovating
instruction/' is honoured in the records of this board, with
notice of the tribute he sent to China from a nation of the
western ocean ; to whom in return Yung-ching sent silk,
jinseng, lackered ware, fine tea, paper, ink, and fans, and
promised, in consequence, he said, of the patronage his
father, Kang-he, granted to them, to protect all the pope's
subjects in China so long as they obeyed the laws. From
this circumstance, the difficulty of inculcating successfully
the grand principles of toleration, though great, would
appear not to be insurmountable. The mind of such an
emperor as Kang-he, compared with that of Taou Kwang, #
was, it is true, of very different structure and capacity,
and the little light of Christianity and science once shed
by the Romish missionaries on the court of Peking is now
extinguished ; still to infuse great and generous principles
into the mind of the despot of so many millions is an
object worthy of the most vigorous and costly efforts.
Whether any approximation to such a result will arise
from the present discussions between the British and
Chinese governments is uncertain; undoubtedly both

* The present ruler of China. — See his portrait at the beginning of this
work.

THE BOARD OF RITES. 239

nations would profit much from cordial interchanges of
reciprocal confidence. In addition to these state cere-
monies, regulations are carefully prescribed for the obser-
vance of suitable etiquette between equals as well as supe-
riors and inferiors, whether in private or public stations.

In the laws of the Tartar dynasty, from which the
preceding statements are drawn, there are various usages
to be observed by ladies of rank when they are elevated
to the dignity of members of the imperial harem, invested
with the honour of nobility, act as ladies in waiting on
grand presentation days, and assist in performing the
required ceremonies at the enthroning of the empress.
The following detail of usages observed when female
majesty ascends the throne, though rather diffuse, may be
excused, perhaps, from its novelty to Europeans. It is
translated from the authority just cited. " The imperial
great empress, the evening before she is enthroned, com-
mands the great officers of state to announce with all
solemnity, in the ancestral temple and contiguous palaces,
the precise time of the ceremony. Her carriages of state
being in attendance, and musical instruments suspended
before and within the doors of the palace, her majesty
arrayed in royal apparel ascends her imperial chariot, and,
preceded by the great ministers of the introductory cere-
monies, proceeds with bands of music to the palace of
compassion and tranquillity, where she reposes for a short
time. A temporary throne having been erected for the
emperor in the centre of the gateway of this palace, the
officers of the Board of Ceremonies reverentially conduct
his majesty from his own apartments, through the glorious
imperial gateway, to the left side of the gate of eternal
felicity, where he descends from his chariot and walks to

240

THE BOARD OP R1TE8.

the door of tenderness and compassion, on the east of
which he stands; meanwhile the officers go to the inner
palace and request the empress to ascend her throne.
Music is playing during the passage of her majesty from
the hall to the presence chamber, which ceases on her
ascending the throne. Ministers of state reverentially
conduct his majesty to the centre of the prepared throne,
where he stands. A special officer (the usher of the whip)
arranges the great ministers of state, the body guard, and
the court equipages, in due order, when the herald pro-
claims aloud the words — 'kneel — worship — rise' — music
instantly strikes up on the vermilion steps, his majesty,
and all the great ministers of state, kneel thrice and bow
nine times ; when this ceremony is concluded his majesty
is reverentially conducted to his own prepared throne.

"After the empress has been attended with music to her
palace, his majesty ascends his chariot and returns to his
palace. The lady mandarins, conductors of affairs, huving
erected a throne in front of her majesty's palace of tender-
ness and repose, and arranged in order, the honourable
ladies, ladies, and ladies in waking, on its right and lift.
the officers of this board go to the harem and respectfully
desire the imperial and noble concubines and other ladies
to proceed to her majesty's palace in their court robes, to
perform the ceremony. Eight ladies duly invested with
authority — ' commissioned married ladies ' — reverentially
lead the cortege through the gate of felicity to the left
gate of the palace of excellent melody, where they alight
from their chariots, and walk to join the ladies already
waiting to receive them. The ladies, directors of the cere-
monies, return to the inner palace to request the imperial,
great queen to ascend her throne. Her majesty complies,

THE BOARD OF RITES. 241

and bands of music attend her progress. She ascends her
throne : all is silent. The same official ladies then con-
duct the imperial queen to the centre of the place of cere-
mony, where the noble, right honourable, and honourable,
concubines are arranged, on either hand behind her, with
their faces towards the north. Music strikes up on the
vermilion steps; the two great ministers of state, and the
commissioned married ladies, respectfully solicit the
empress at the head of the ladies of her apartments to
perform the six reverences, the three kneelings, and the
three worshippings. When these ceremonies are ended,
they enter the palace of tenderness and tranquillity, where
an imperial banquet is conferred, for which the royal
guests return thanks by making two reverences and one
bow. The empress and her ladies having been conducted
to their apartments, with the same order and etiquette in
which they came, all retire."

The literal signification of some of the preceding official
names and acts of obeisance is curious : " there is the
calling aloud and commanding officer, who acts the he-
rald's part, the officer who grasps affairs/* — a title appli-
cable to either sex, which takes the management of
important matters of business ; the officer of the whip,
which perhaps answers to the page in waiting; the
conductors of ceremonies and other officers, both male
and female, corresponding to the masters of ceremonies,
mistresses of the robes, and other officials in European
courts ; then there are the curtseyings, kneelings, and
bowings of the ladies, with the kneelings, prostrations,
and head knockings of the gentlemen.

Some matters which seem to belong to the war depart-
ment, are under the direction of this board, such as the

242 THE BOARD OP RITES.

best mode of conducting an attack or defence, punish-
ments to be inflicted on a breach of military discipline,
admonitions prepared in the name of the sovereign, to be
addressed to his troops before going into battle, the de-
portment proper to be observed towards the vanquished,
together with a list of military appointments, are inscribed
among the records of this board. Miraculous supplies of
water, and abundance of herbage in an arid desert, where
the imperial army must otherwise have soon perished,
are recorded as special interpositions of Heaven, resulting
from the meritorious conduct of the generals, and the
felicity of the dynasty under whose auspices they fight.
Orders promulgated to the troops before they attack an
enemy, are distinguished by a spirit of clemency but
little observed by the soldiers, who are probably aware
that the neglect of them will not be followed by certain
punishment. Still decapitation is threatened to those
who, on a march, rob, burn houses, maltreat the people,
or in anywise injure their persons and property. Several
other offences are punishable with death ; as refusing to
obey the signal for advancing or retiring, shrinking in
actual conflict with the enemy, and discouraging others
in the moment of action. An aid-de-camp or other
officer, who falsifies the instructions of his general, reveals
secret orders, attempts to rob another of his military fame,
makes pretences of visions, dreams, ghosts, or super-
natural omens of any kind, to influence the people, shall
be beheaded.

But as this board superintends the national sacrifices,
which are accounted of great importance by the govern-
ment, an outline must be given of the ceremonies observed
in offering them.

The objects of worship, the nature of the sacrifices, the

THE BOARD OF RIT88. 243

persons who officiate, and the seasons when these rites
should be solemnized, are described in detail. It would
be difficult to assign a probable aera for the introduction
of national sacrifices into China, whose historical records
affirm that, in high antiquity, bullocks and sheep were
offered undressed, because fire was unknown when the
rite was first observed. The essential part of the ceremo-
nial has ever consisted in sacrificing the life of a perfect
animal ; the slaying of which in due form is an object of
solicitude, even at this day, with the emperor, who occa-
sionally goes in person to inspect the sacred depository
of victims and utensils, and to see the altar prior to the
ceremony. It is usual, previous to the sacrifice, for a
period of fasting to be observed by the civilians who
officiate as priests, some of whom spend the whole preceding
night in different public offices. But whatever semblance
of devotion may be assumed during the performance of
the ceremonies, the supreme direction of them by his
majesty, and the public servants of the crown, sufficiently
attests their political character. The numerous gods and
goddesses of China are patronized by the government
only for the purpose of producing, on the part of the
people, abject submission to its despotic power. To pre*
serve, in its integrity, the mighty influence of civil tyranny,
based on superstitious fears and hopes, whatever is at-
tractive in language, imposing in external splendour, and
venerable from ancient usage, is resorted to in the solem-
nization of the national rites. Music is indispensable to
the right performance of the sacrificial ceremonies, inas-
much as it is the ancient source of man's sublimest
feelings. Aiming at the two-fold object of penetrating the
people with awe, and exhibiting a perfect model of self-
it 2

244 THE BOARD OF RITES.

devotion, the emperor not only sacrifices in person, but
observes the most rigid forms of worship. The victim must
be killed two days previously, and offered early in the
morning, when his majesty reads a written form of prayer,
announcing his motives, his proceedings, the objects he
purposes to himself, and the happiness he anticipates from
the event he is then commemorating, whether it be a
victory over foreign foes, or the blessings of a civil rite.
Rectitude of personal conduct, tranquillity to the empire,
a long and felicitous reign, distinguished by pure bene-
volence, are the chief topics of the sovereign's prayers,
which always conclude with a petition for the eternal re-
pose of the dynasty. The formula of the ceremonial
consists of kneelings and prostrations; its eucharistic
oblations, of gems, silk, diamonds, and other costly ar-
ticles, placed on the altar, first by his majesty, and then
by his attendant ministers, who all bring offerings suitable
to their rank and station. Such are the principal sacri-
fices offered to heaven. It is curious also to observe, in
connection with what may be called the natural religion of
China, sacrifices slain in spring and autumn, to the spirits
of all preceding emperors and founders of dynasties, at
the places where they are interred, first commemorating
in one general service all that have ever lived, and then
sacrificing to each individual separately, from the origin-
ator of the first, to the founder of the last dynasty. In
execution of the latter ceremony official persons are sent
by government to the different places of royal sepulture,
near which it is supposed the shades of the departed
constantly dwell, to present bullocks, sheep, pigs, fruit,
incense, candles, silk, and libations of wine, with all pos-
sible veneration at all the tombs of the ancient worthies,

TUB BOARD OP RITBS. 245

but with diminished respect to those of the sovereigns of
Ming. #

In addition to these rites, others are prepared under
the superintendence of this board for the service of deities
without number : gods of the heavenly department-
clouds, wind, thunder, and rain ; of the earthly — moun-
tains, rivers, seas, and hills ; and of the four seasons, to
which costly sacrifices are offered in time of great drought,
from their vast influence over the physical condition of
the empire; nay, even the very elements of which the
air is formed, the constituent parts of the earth, and the
productions of human art, are revered as gods. On the
imperial army going out to fight, sacrifices are offered,
not merely to the superior deities of the state, but to the
gods of the road, fire, the imperial standards, cannon, and
military weapons in general, during an uproarious confu-
sion of noises from horns, gongs, and trumpets, the
military officers officiating as priests ; so that the prin-
cipal parties in the state engaged in the great national
sacrifices are the board of rites, as the authority for the
ceremonial ; the astronomical board to fix the proper
season ; the collegiate institute to compose the devotional
exercises; and the great civil or military officers, as the
case may require, to discharge the duties of the executive
department. When thanks are to be returned for any
great victory, an altar is erected in the open air by the
emperor, who, having placed incense upon it, kneels thrice
and bows nine times, in token of the obligations incurred
to the azure heavens which he worships. It is the pro-
vince of this board not only to decide upon the different
ceremonies to be performed at the innumerable oblations
• The drat*? which the pronMl hmSkf ilrojiiL

246 THE MILITARY BOARD.

made throughout the empire, but to take cognizance of
the two grand moral sections, into which the private rites
of the people are divided by philosophers ; these are the
felicitous and the calamitous rites — terms which embrace
all possible occasions of joy or sorrow, and their corres-
pondent external duties, of which marriage ceremonies
and funeral rites stand at the head of each class. If the
object of the ceremony be to procure blessings, the astro-
nomical board selects a propitious day, and the Han-lin
college prepares a form of prayer, all the parties engaged
previously keeping a strict fast.

Most minute regulations are enjoined respecting the
shape, material, and colour of the dresses worn by mem-
bers of the imperial family, and by the court generally.
The minutiae of the ceremonials prescribed are too tedious
to be translated at length; suffice it to say, that the
number of attendants on each personage, the various
articles of luxury, and in ordinary use, for the tables and
wardrobes of ladies and gentlemen, are in each indi-
vidual case carefully ordained, and regulated with the
utmost precision, whether they respect members of the
royal house or their noble attendants.

The Military Board possesses a jurisdiction much
more extensive than the import of its title, since it in-
cludes under its authority the naval and merchant service,
the imperial hunting, police, and post-office departments,
as well as the army. In this latter branch it takes cog-
nizance of the appointment and removal of officers, the
furnishing of supplies to the soldiers, and their general
preparation for the field. China, according to its his-
torians, maintains a large standing army, not much fewer
than eight hundred thousand men, with a corresponding

PI

b

.J

I • •

. I •■ - •■*

THE MILITARY BOARD. 247

number of officers, of whom all the higher grades, and a
large number of the soldiers, are Tartars. The arrange-
ment of an army in the field, with two wings and a
centre, in eight squares, like the men on the chess board,
is a favourite mode, with Chinese writers, of describing the
military tactics of the empire. To each of these batta-
lions a standard is attached, with numerous officers of
different rank, from a general, with majors, lieutenants,
and adjutants-general, through the several descending
series of colonels, majors, captains of thousands, heads
of hundreds, to the lowest subaltern. All the military
officers should rise from the ranks. There is, however,
little discipline to improve the skill and aid the prowess
of the privates, whose success in fighting has probably in
all instances sprung from their own overwhelming num-
bers, or the pusillanimity of the enemy. Nor can a better
state of discipline be expected while the larger proportion
of the army is employed several months of the year in
cultivating the soil for its support. Their chief use is to
quell local insurrections ; and that their conduct is suf-
ficiently oppressive in the districts where they reside, or
through which they are passing on duty, may be learned
from the severe laws enacted by government, and the
power it grants to their officers of inflicting summary
punishment on those who rob, maltreat, or destroy peace-
able subjects.

The Tartars are much more warlike than the Chinese,
who, an imperial historian says, before fire-arms were
introduced, with no other weapon than the sword and the
bow, always routed their adversaries ; but their match-
locks and larger guns, in the manner they are usually
served, would, notwithstanding their numbers, prove a

248 THE MILITARY BOARD.

feeble resistance to the precision and rapidity of European
gunnery. It is unfortunate for the Chinese that they
have been so isolated as to form a world of themselves,
from which all other nations are excluded, and in whose
improvement they have, consequently, not participated.
The entire correction of their supercilious conduct to-
wards foreigners will, probably, cost them a considerable
sacrifice of blood and treasure. Stratagems in war are
greatly admired by native writers, who in some of their
histories describe the feats performed by the commanders
of both armies. The satisfaction of knowing how they
formerly attacked their adversaries, defended themselves
in the field, and conducted sieges, is considerably abated
by the frequent recurrence, in avowedly official accounts,
of stories too absurd for belief; generally, such as relate
to divination, and supernatural interpositions, from which
it is pretended to derive foreknowledge of events, and in-
tuitive discernment of character. Astrology is a favourite
science with military commanders, whose abode in the
open air during a campaign might suggest the advantage
to be taken of the movements of the planets, for the
purpose of overawing a superstitious army. Kung-ming,
a general in the civil wars of the third century, was
greatly celebrated for his skill in applying the astrological
art to military movements. Being consulted by his prince,
who was in difficulty, on the desirableness of some new
enterprise, he remarked — " During this splendid night,
looking at the figures of the stars, I beheld in the north-
west one star fall to the earth, which phenomenon must
betoken the rending asunder of an imperial clan." Scarcely
had he uttered these words when a messenger arrived to
announce that the eldest son of the royal house had

THB MILITARY BOARD. 249

sickened and perished. Kung-ming, who was the Calchas*
of the army, goes into battle, with a fan in one hand and
a handkerchief in the other, to decide the fate of millions
by the motion of his hand. Ambuscades, to which re-
course is constantly had, when successfully laid, indicate
the accomplished general. They consist in attacking the
enemy with an inferior number of troops, who, by feigning
to be routed, flee, and draw their opponents after them
into a place where the ambuscade lies concealed, which
immediately rushes out to join their comrades, and attack
the pursuing party. The soldier, the marine, the police-
man, and the sailor, are all blended, by the constitution
of this board, in one individual. The estimates of the
army include those of the navy, and men are soldiers or
sailors, admirals or generals, as the state may require
their services on land or water. This board provides for
the coast and river service, superintends the construction
of vessels of all kinds, and ordains their models and
admeasurements, from which no deviation is allowed,
lest they should outsail the government cruizers ; their
rigging, and even fitting out, are objects of careful atten-
tion. It enforces numerous minute and vexatious pro-
hibitions. Natives are strictly enjoined not to embark in
foreign ships; and foreigners peremptorily forbidden to
enter the country on pain of severe punishment, whether
on their own responsibility, or as slaves purchased by the
Chinese themselves.

This board takes charge of the materials of which gun-
powder is made, especially sulphur and saltpetre, to
prevent illicit traffic in those articles. It extends its
authority over the police department, which is charged

♦ VlrgO's jBmU, Bk. II. f». 100.

260 THE BOARD OF PUNISHMENTS.

with the suppression of piracy, the detection of murders,
the apprehension of gamblers, and members of the triad
society, which is an object of great jealousy to the go-
rernment. For the aid of the civil power against such
offenders, military patroles are appointed in every district
of the empire, to a number not exceeding twenty, nor less
than ten, in a locality, all of whom are severely punished
for neglect of duty. The Chinese, not being favoured with
a post-office, and facilities of railway, or mail coach tran-
sit, make up the deficiency by appointing couriers for the
despatch of letters and official communications to different
parts of the empire. In the metropolitan province there
are nearly two hundred stations, at some of which there
are more than that number of horses, with about half the
number of men to take care of them. The number of
postmen is upwards of ten thousand, for the purpose of
carrying despatches to all parts of the empire : the entire
establishment is conducted by this board.

The board of rites takes cognizance of imperial hunting
excursions, which are always on a lucky day selected by
the royal astronomer, and preceded by the usual sacrifices
to the national deities, whose favour it is essential to pro-
pitiate. On such occasions the emperor receives petitions
from his subjects generally, who, with his officers, salute
him kneeling by the way-side. Imperial reviews are also
under its direction, when, in Chinese phrase, his majesty
girds his sword-belt to him, and mounts his charger,
attended with official pomp and splendour.

The Board of Punishments. It has been already inti-
mated that the general division of the laws corresponds
to the number of tribunals now under review. The
original digest of the laws of the empire, made by Seaou-ho

THE BOARD OF PUN I8HMKVTS. 261

two centuries before the Christian sera, comprised four
hundred and fifty statutes, to which sixteen hundred have
since been added. The enactments for changing or
modifying preceding laws in different ages, together with
those founded on the will of the emperor, are chiefly
embodied in the penal code, and in the collectioh of
statutes of the Tartar dynasty. An excellent translation
of the penal code having been made some years ago by
Sir George Staunton, it would not be necessary to enter
into the peculiar details of Chinese law even if the object
of this work permitted. A general outline of the opera-
tions of this board, as they are described in the statutes of
the Tartar dynasty, is all that we shall attempt There
are two presidents, a Tartar and a Chinese, with numerous
other subordinate officers whose names and titles are
stated in the opening of the treatise. The punishments are
five, corresponding to the ancient elements of the earth*
The first in order, is flogging with a flat piece of bamboo*
For petty offences, divided into five classes, the law or-
dains from ten to fifty blows, which, however, to evince
the merciful spirit of the government, are reduced in prac
tice to four blows for the lowest, and twenty for the highest
offence. Flogging with the larger piece of bamboo for
more heinous offences, is from sixty to a hundred blows
in theory, but reduced in practice from twenty to forty,
which the punishment must not exceed ; according to an
ancient proverb, " be severe in enacting laws, but lenient
in executing them/* For crimes of a more aggravated
nature the wooden collar is to be worn from one month
to three, varying in weight according to the heinousneas
of. the offence. It is a square piece of wood fastened
round the neck with an iron clasp, which forms a punish*

252 THE BOA£D OF PUNISHMENTS.

ment so severe as sometimes to prove fatal. Its length is
three cubits, its breadth two, its weight twenty-five catties
— more than thirty pounds. The third class of punish-
ments is transportation, the banishment of the offender
from his native province, and is divided into five kinds.
When the term is completed the offender may return to
the place of registration — his native abode. A scale is
adopted of proportioning the term of banishment to the
number of blows ; one year being equivalent to sixty, and
a year and a half to seventy, advancing ten blows for each
half-year for which transportation may be commuted. If
the criminal abscond, on being taken he shall have two
years added to his original punishment; if he be under
the sentence of transportation to the distance of three
thousand le, four years is the additional term. The fourth
class of punishments is banishment to a distant province
for life, which is divisible into three classes of distance,
of two thousand, two thousand five hundred, and three
thousand le ; hence the phrase san-lew, so frequently met
with, means these three grades of banishment for life
regulated by distance from the culprit's home. Commu-
tation for offences deserving transportation may be made
by wearing the kea, or wooden collar, as a person to be
banished a thousand le may be excused by wearing that
instrument fifty days : this is peculiarly applicable to a
standard-bearer — a Manchow Tartar — who, when guilty
of other offences, has the privilege of being whipped,
instead of beaten with the bamboo. The servant of a
Tartar offending is to be sent to the army on the frontier
to be a slave for life, which is a heavier punishment than
ordinary transportation, and for the execution of which the
criminal is placed exclusively among the Tartars; this

THE BOARD OF PUHISHMEHTS. 253

grade of retribution is divided into five branches. The
fifth class of punishments is death by strangling and be-
heading, superintended by a special officer of the criminal
department, who after the trial makes a report to the
emperor, and obtains his authority to carry the sentence
into execution. For heinous crimes the head is placed on
a pole at the top of a cage and shown to the multitude*
The death inflicted on parricides and traitors, by slowly
cutting them to pieces, is the most cruel and ignominious ;
and it may be executed without regard to the regular
time of the assizes : bribes are given to the executioner by
the criminal to stab him previously to the process. Be-
heading is considered more shameful than strangling, from
the veneration with which the Chinese regard the body,
and from the circumstance of its being mutilated in the
one case and not in the other ; so that a Chinaman would
greatly prefer the death of the vulgar to that of the peer*
The mode of strangling is on a cross by twisting the cord
tight round the feet, then the waist, the wrists, and finally
the neck, to prolong the sufferings of the criminal : bribes
are given to have it put first round the neck. In inflict-
ing the ordinary punishments bribes to the lictor render
the infliction much lighter.

The next topic in order in this work is the commutation
of offences for money. For slight offences an atonement
may be accepted, if the offender be above seventy yean
of age, and under fifteen, or of infirm health. An offence
deserving transportation to the distance of three thousand
iV, and inferior crimes, including those of women who
offend the laws, as brawlers, adulteresses, thieves, or dis-
obedient, or have been accustomed to similar practices,
may be commuted. If a preceptor of astronomy commit

264 THE BOARD OF PUNISHMENTS.

an offence, he shall only be flogged. This is a singular
law, since a clergyable offence is recognized not in favour
of the priesthood but of a civil calling, and shows both
the esteem in which astronomical calculations are held
and the scarcity of mathematical talent. If homicide be
committed or injury unintentionally inflicted, the punish-
ment varies from beating to strangling, and may be com-
muted for money. Those who receive bribes shall not be
allowed to commute their offences for money. Persons
to be branded are, offenders who run away, thieves, con-
trivers of plots, those who resist the police, and murderers.
Tartars are to be branded on the arm, the fore part of the
wrist, and below the elbow ; slaves are to be branded on
the face. For transportable offences and those of a
graver nature, the criminal is branded on the face ; old
offenders to be branded on the face below the hair, on the
temples, and above the chin ; runaway criminals are
branded on the left side with the names of their crimes,
and their native places on the right; the characters to
be an inch and a half square, and the breadth of the
writing two-fifths of an inch. As soon as the sentence
is pronounced the branding takes place. Instruments of
punishment and torture are minutely described, with the
persons who are exempt from torture.

Law is expressed by two terms, which are defined to
mean what fixes the crime and what aids in so doing ;
one of the terms denotes the standard laws of the empire ;
the other, the explanatory clauses or bye-laws. There are
thirty sections divided into the following subjects :
Celebrated enactments, official regulations, public pre-
cepts, domestic servants, the boundaries of fields, mar-
riage, granaries, rules of study (the statutes which fix

THE BOARD OP Pl'VISHMElfTS. 266

them), debts, public markets, sacrifices, laws of eti-
quette, palace guards, government of the army, passes
and fords, horse-keepers, post-office stations, thefts,
human life, fightings and wranglings, intemperate lan-
guage, litigations about property, bribery, falsehood
adultery, miscellaneous offences, the pursuit of fugitives,
decision of cases at law, public buildings, and the
banks of rivers. The minute points into which they are
subdivided amount to three hundred and forty-six, each
according with its primary law, to subjugate animosities, to
guard against official delinquency, to correct wickedness
and folly, to illustrate customs, and promote obedience.
Crimes are distinguished into public and private, trivial and
important. Laws ordained to distinguish principal from
subordinate offenders, and to regulate punishments, must
be diffused throughout the empire and eternally obeyed.
The ten unpardonable crimes are : plotting the subversion
of the altar — the gods of the land and grain ; the great
rebellion — laying in ruins the temples of ancestors, im-
perial tombs, and palaces; treason— deserting one's native
country to serve a foreign nation ; the impious rebellion-
wicked ly seeking to imbrue the hands in the blood of a
grandfather or grandmother, 4 a parent, or collateral rela-
tive; violation of moral principle — to slay or maim a
whole family — poison animals, and make them dream of
monsters; sacrilegious impiety — to steal vessels used in
sacrifice at the imperial temple, to steal imperial baggage,
garments and other things belonging to the emperor,
to counterfeit the imperial seal, to mix medicines for the
emperor contrary to the original prescription, to prepare
food contrary to the prohibitions, and make the emperor's
visiting boats of slender construction ; filial disobedience

256

THE BOARD OF PV NISHMENTK.

— in cursing ancestral relations and parents, not support-
ing parents, not mourning for their death, contracting
marriage during the period of mourning; disagreement
amongst kindred — a wife accusing her husband to the
magistrate, and superiors and inferiors committing crimes
with one another; unrighteous deeds — the people killing
magistrates, subordinate officers slaying their superiors;
incestuous intercourse between members of the same
family : these are the ten unpardonable crimes. There
are eight classes of privileged persons exempt from torture
in giving their evidence, and if guilty of offences they are
to be reported direct to the emperor, all proceedings
being stayed till his reply is received : these are mem-
bers of the imperial family ; ancient attendants on the
emperor's person; men of great military renown, of
high moral virtue, of extraordinary abilities either in
the cabinet or the field, of great industry and zeal in the
service of the state; persons of noble rank, and na-
tional guests, that is, descendants of a preceding dynasty.
Laws for the punishment of official delinquents, whose
office entitles them to the privilege of the bastinado, are
then noticed. The mode of conducting lawsuits follows.
Pleading by barristers is not allowed in Chinese courts.
The individual may make his own defence, with what
assistance he has previously procured from the expositors
of the law, and transcribers of documentary evidence, who,
though disallowed by the statutes of the empire, yet pro-
fess to gain a cause for a certain sum of money. It is an
almost incredible fact, that an innocent man is in some
instances allowed by the laws of China to suffer death for
the guilty. The law of the case, with regard to persons
not related, is, that he who is bribed to become a sub-

THE BOARD OF WORKS. 25?

stitute shall suffer the same punishment as the guilty
party, whether it be transportation, strangling, or behead-
ing ; and that punishment, besides that of the original
offence, shall be inflicted on the person who procures the
substitute. If there be relationship between the parties,
the law interposes less objection ; especially if it be the
younger for the older, as a late emperor remarked, that
for a son to suffer death for his parent might be allowed
without violating natural feelings, but for a father to die
for his son, whose tender feelings might suggest such a
step, the very thought of it could not be endured. It is
enacted also, that posterity should suffer for the crimes of
ancestors — perhaps one of the severest provisions of the
Chinese law. It reminds the Scripture readers of the
punishments threatened in the Jewish canon, to be visited
unto the third and fourth generation. Foreigners who be-
come naturalized in China, and experience the renovating
influences of her government, are expected to submit to
her laws ; but the Mung-koo Tartars are tried by their
own laws.

The Board of Works, is occupied in superintending the
public buildings connected with the imperial palaces,
gardens, temples, tombs, and the national altars. Every
work of art, military or civil, required by the government
is under its direction; such as bows, arrows, swords,
cannon, matchlocks, standards, banners, and helmets.
Helmets for a king must be made of iron washed with
gold at the vertex, and adorned with a red gem and a
coat of mail, whose exterior is of cotton studded with gold
nails, and lined with white silk, between which are placed
iron plates. The fortresses, public granaries, barracks,
rivers, canals, bridges, and roads, together with junks and

258 THE HOARD OF Mrsic.

packets, of the latter of whicb about two hundred and fifty
are allowed for the province of Canton, are all superintended
by this board. To preserve a communication with Thibet,
bridges of boats are built, and on the lakes, near dan-
gerous rapids, a class of life-boats have been stationed
for more than a hundred years. Without entering more
into detail than to state that her majesty's carriages,
sedan chairs, boxes for jewels, and those in which petitions
are to be presented at court, are made under the direction
of this board, it will be allowed that its officers have
sufficient objects to employ their constant attention, and,
considering the capricious humours of their master, sulli-
cient cause for the utmost solicitude in discharging their
public duties.

The Board of Music, not included in the six boards, is
instituted to direct the rejoicings and festivals at the
palace. From the notice of the musical instruments, it
will be seen that the Chinese do not excel in this depart-
ment of the fine arts, and that noise, rather than delicate
sounds, or harmonious combinations, constitutes their
chief attraction. It will not, therefore, be necessary
to detain the reader's attention on a discussion of their
theories.

Chinese Nobility. — The different degrees of nubility
in China originated under the latter part of the Sliang dy-
nasty, and were then three in uumber, in imitation of the

"three glorious lights" — the sun, moon, and stars. The
nobles of the Chow period, some hundred years later, were
distinguished into five ranks — Kung, How, Pih, Tsze,
Nan, in imitation of the five elements. The first of these
m named Kung, "public spirited," fn>m ;i generous regard

THE CHINESE NOBILITY. 259

to the welfare of the state, in opposition to selfish feelings.
The second, How, persons who have lost the favour of
the court by their virtues, but expecting more auspicious
times, persevere in doing good amidst suffering and oblo-
quy ; hence How means to wait, to expect. The third,
Pih, were "splendid men," as the word denotes, men
possessing a high degree of intelligence; superiors in age,
wisdom, and virtue. The fourth, Tsze, nobles capable
of nurturing and training others in virtuous conduct — a
word applied now to philosophers and persons of eminent
learning. The fifth, Nan, nobles able to sustain the bur-
den of important offices with vigour, and thereby to give
repose to others; the word signifies male, strength. In
ancient times the nobles of China, as in the early history
of most civilized countries, were inferior kings or chief*
tains, attached to a certain territory, over which they
ruled despotically. The emperor, "son of heaven," com-
manded a domain a thousand le in extent; the first order
of nobility possessed a territory of one hundred; the third
seventy, and the two last orders fifty each, a district of about
twelve English square miles. Those chieftains who could
not command fifty le were not allowed to attach them-
selves to the emperor, but were united with the inferior
nobles. It is said that China, which was then divided
into nine regions, contained seventeen hundred and se-
venty nations. Other statements of the division of ter-
ritory amongst ancient nobles, represent the land as
being divided equally into parcels of five hundred le each:
the first portion, nearest the imperial domain, denoted the
highest rank, which regularly varied to the most distant
portion, which was the lowest. These were designated
dependent nations, or tributary provinces.

s '>

260 THE CHINESE NOBILITY.

Choo How, n general term for ancient nobility, reigneil
over their states by hereditary right, but the statesmen
did not enjoy their rank by hereditary succession. The
patent of nobility was originally created to reward meri-
torious officers of government. The first universal mo-
narch of China, who conquered six other contending
states, instituted twenty degrees of nobility for this pur-
pose; some of whom had rank but no territorial revenue,
others had both. During the dynasty of Han, the third
century of our :era, two degrees of nobility were created;
the Wang orking (some have translated the word "duke"),
and How or "noble," which are retained to the present
period: the former was conferred on princes of the impe-
rial family, and is equivalent to the title of the ancient
nobles.

It was under this dynasty also that the practice first-
obtained of distributing the people as well as the land
among persons of rank; auciently territory was given
without vassals. Other titles of eminence were bestowed,
and special admission to the imperial presence granted to
those who bore them, together with a seat among his
majesty's ministers. Inferior statesmen, created nobles
by patent, were called court nobles, who wore embroi-
dered garments, and flat caps, with a board shaped like a
parallelogram; the designation implying "nobles waiting
on sacrifice," from their attendance at the grand sacrifices
of the empire. When the kings or dukes were created, they
received a reed and some earth, with which they repaired to
their destined territory to erect altars to the land. About
the close of the sixth century, there were six degrees of titled
nobility, Wang prefixed as the chief to the five already
mentioned. At this peri ml many distinctions noted

TUB CHINESE NOBILITY. 261

among the Chinese nobility, for the purpose of rewarding
military merit ; several of them were without emolument or
revenue, and thence very significantly designated empty
patents of nobility. The Tang dynasty, during the sixth
century, acknowledged nine degrees of nobility, similar to
those which afterwards prevailed: princes of the blood
were styled u consanguineous kings." Under the Sung
dynasty, about the tenth century, owing to the ease with
which its founder obtained the empire, titles were not
conferred for military merit, but for the sake of honouring
literature, a practice directly the reverse of that of Han,
which ennobled only those who had done military service.

The Ming dynasty, the last Chinese family that sat
upon the throne, bestowed its honours principally on the
princes and princesses of the imperial house.

The causes for creating nobility are arranged under
several heads, in the following order. 1. The kindred of
the emperor. 2. The meritorious servants of the crown.
3. The sons and grandsons of those who have died with
honour in the imperial service. 4. The posterity of merito-
rious statesmen; a queen named Kaou-how, about two
centuries before Christ, commanded certain temple honours
to be continued age after age without ceasing, and that
each of the individual's heirs should inherit his rank.

5. Those who have been eminent for virtuous conduct.

6. Nobility granted to honour former worthies, and pre-
vent their names from becoming extinct. 7. Nobility
conferred as a mere mark of the prince's gracious favour.
8. Nobility conferred on distant relations of female rela-
tives of the royal house. 9. Posthumous nobility, or that
conferred after the death of the person to be ennobled ;
promotions which have often been the occasion of idolatry

262 THE CHINESE NOBILITY.

to the Chinese, since they worship deified mortals, to
whom, because their exploits had been held in veneration,
mortal emperors have rendered immortal and divine ho-
nours. 10. Transferring, or rather changing titles, equiva-
lent to our mode of promotion. 11. Nobility granted to
persons in foreign territories, who have submitted, and
become attached to China. 12. Nobility granted to fe-
males! yes, notwithstanding the harsh bearing of celes-
tial usages on the fair sex, there is sufficient gallantry in
China to induce her sons occasionally to court its good
opinion. Nobility was also granted to the common peo-
ple about two centuries before the Christian eera, as an
inducement to them to put away the altars of Tsin, and es-
tablish in their stead those of the Han dynasty. The titles
were sold, or bestowed gratis, according to circumstances,
and each of the loyalists who had rank, obtained the for-
giveness of any crimes he might commit. There were
some who humbly declined being ennobled, of whom ho-
nourable mention is made in the native work from which
these extracts are made.

263

SECTION VI.

SUPERNATURAL ANIMALS — ANTIQUITIES SACRED AND SOCIAL CUSTOMS

—CIVIL AND POLITICAL INSIGNIA — INTERCOURSE WITH DISEMBODIED
SPIRITS — SUPERSTITIOUS PREJUDICES—PERIODICAL FEASTS — DIVINA-
TION — MARRIAGE.

Man, composed of matter organised like the bodies of the
inferior animals, and of spirit capable of operations incon-
ceivably superior, though variously affected by different
circumstances, never loses the identity of his species, nor
fails to evince its immeasurable superiority to every other.
Guided by reason in the absence of revelation, if we except
the more savage tribes, his modes of action conform to
certain symbols of authority befitting his two-fold nature,
whether he be the member of a patriarchal community or
the subject of an extensive empire. Emblems and devices,
common to tribes between whom no intercourse ever sub-
sisted, strikingly illustrate these different characteristics
of humanity, by embodying supernatural protection in
figures of living animals, human beings, or supposed
spiritual existences. These symbols of popular supersti-
tion vary in nations which have the same object in view,
according to the functions and sentiments they are designed
to |>ortray.

The pure child of nature, whose habits of life almost
identify him with the beasts of the forest, has a spiritual

264 SUPERNATURAL ANIMALS

directory, more simple indeed, but not more debased
than the superstitions of the lettered Pagan, whose tradi-
tional customs, derived from a remote ancestry, hold him
in the grossest thraldom. In the barbarous state, the
imaginative faculty, excited by surrounding objects, passing
events, and the extraordinary phenomena of the heavens,
is the source of hopes and fears unaided by traditional
communications, which, so far as religious principle is in-
volved, are perhaps confined to the more polished heathen.
Both barbarous and civilized pagans, however, agree to
recognize certain animals as national protectors, on whose
agency they rely to reveal the counsels of the Supreme
Being respecting futurity. The most probable origin of
this superstitious practice is an obscure tradition of patri-
archal sacrifices. For whatever regard be had, to the
viscera of victims slain for the purposes of prognostication,
to prodigies in the heavens, to the appearance of rare
animals on the earth, and to extraordinary events of Divine
Providence, still it is only as omens to indicate the irre-
versible decree of one Supreme Power. The transition
from this state of feeling to idolatry, and the transforma-
tion of the mere instrument into the protecting national
deity, will not appear unnatural, if we consider the close
connection that has always subsisted between civil govern-
ment and superstition ; and, in the purer ages of the world,
between divine and human authority. Hence animals,
viewed both as emblems of political power, and as super-
natural tokens of the will of Heaven, became gradually
transformed from unconscious agents into independent
deities. The Egyptians, having deified living animals and
inanimate natural productions, tortured their imaginations
to invent new deities, by uniting different members of

NATIONAL PROTECTORS. 265

different species of animals into monstrous figures as
objects of worship.

The theories of the Chinese, whatever be their practice,
are almost equally gross. In a work devoted to this sub-
ject there are descriptions, accompanied with drawings of
various monsters, revered as the deities of certain moun-
tains and hills where they dwell, to control the events and
unfold the destinies of human life. Their existence is
said to have originated from the fortuitous intercourse of
superhuman beings in mountains and forests. Their trans-
mission to posterity is ascribed to the divine Yu, # who
during his reign caused figures of tributary offerings
from distant provinces to be engraven on wine cups, sacred
vessels, and vases, for the instruction of his people in the
knowledge of remote customs and manners. These
wonders of mountains and rivers, of herbs and trees, of
birds and beasts, were first preserved as memorials of
natural phenomena by Yu, who " illustrated their habits,
discriminated their natures, and classified their species ;"
but were afterwards regarded as divinities, which the writer
says, " are represented one by one, whether frightful to the
eye, or alarming to the ear, and whether existing con-
stantly, but seldom, or not at all. This method of instruc-
tion by symbolic forms," it is added, " was not confined
to one monarch, but was adopted by all who sought to
illumine the minds of their people." Not only is the pre-
cise residence of each monster recorded, but the quantity
of gold, silver, and diamonds, found in the several rivers
and hills to which it is contiguous. It would be unin-
teresting to describe all the strange forms which a wild
and superstitious imagination has conceived ; the following

• Seep. 13*.

8IJPER NATURAL AXIMALS

specimens will exhibit their general character. An animal
with the body of a tiger, having nine human heads, one
of which is in the centre of the other eight, called the
intelligent creature of a hundred souls ; a species of croco-
dile, said to exist in the Yang-tsze-keang, which has six
heads and four feet; a kind of deer with the body of a horse,
spotted like a tiger, having a white head and red tail, which
makes a noise like a person singing; fishes, serpents, and
other animals, headless, or having many heads of different
Species, with one limb, one eye, or destitute of both, or
having several eyes, limbs, feet, tails, and wings, annexed
to one body, constitute the more exaggerated symbols of
deities. Of single animals celebrated in natural, as well as
superstitious history, and of less complicated forms, the
siny-sing, of the baboon or monkey tribe, occupies a pro-
minent position : it is described variously, with a human
race, the head of a fowl, the body of a dog or pig, as
knowing persons' names, and crying like an infant ; there
is also the rhinoceros, which has the figure of a buffalo,
the head of a dog, and three horns, one on its nose, one
on the forehead, and one on the top of the head ; and the
unicorn, which has the figure of an ox, is of a blueish black
colour, and possessed of one horn rising perpendicularly
from the top of its head. But a large proportion of these
alleged monsters are connected with some calamity, whose
appearance is considered a presage of its occurrence.
iSerpents of all sizes, and fishes with human heads, are
generally omens of long drought; bullocks, bulla l<" •, Utd
large animals forbode extensive inundations or grMt pesti-
lence ; a species of fox predicts, by his appearance, many
eminent scholars; a dog prognosticates a great army; a
:h with three, facet is an emblem vf immortality. <"

NATIONAL PROTECTORS. 267

local deities, the god of the southern mountain stands erect
with the feet of a fowl, the face of a man, two wings and
two horns, while the god of the southern rivers and streams
appears with his legs enveloped in the folds of a serpent ;
but such superstitious notions, though recorded in their
ancient books, have comparatively little influence on the
practical character of the Chinese.

The four supernatural animals that preside over the
destinies of the Chinese empire, are the stag, the phoenix,
the tortoise, and the dragon, which may be designated the
guardians of literature, virtue, superstition, and national
authority ; since the first appears at the birth of sages, in
token of Heaven's approbation ; the second only in seasons
of universal virtue ; the third is appropriated to divination ;
the fourth is the national arms of China, depicted on the
imperial standards, and affixed to imperial precepts, edicts,
documents, books, instruments, and all the insignia of
royalty.

Closely allied to the preceding topic, are the antiquities
of China, deposited in ancestral temples, consisting of
sceptres, vases, goblets, tripods, cups, bells, girdles, rings,
and caps, which were first reduced to classes by command
of the emperor Yaou, who spared no expense to complete
the collection, which succeeding emperors ordered to be
published by the presidents of Han-lin college, and of the
Board of Ceremonies, with other superior officers of state.
Their professed object was the promotion of public virtae,
which, according to Chinese notions, is attainable only by
the study of ancient memorials. For when the people of
Thoo declared they neither had, nor desired to have, any
other valuables but virtue alone, it was replied, " for that
very reason they should rejoice to examine inscriptions

268 ANCIENT SCEPTRES.

on vessels preserved in the halls of their forefathers ex-
pressly for their instruction. Good men of old compared
virtue to a diamond embedded in mud but not defiled, un-
injured by constant attrition, bright in surrounding dark-
ness, smooth but impenetrable."

Sceptres, the most ancient symbols of authority, were
originally made of some rude material dug from the
earth;* but were in later periods set with gems, or made
of the chrysopras, and other precious stones. In the pre-
face to the work I am consulting, it is stated — " From
the three dynastiesf to the present time, sceptres and other
insignia were made of valuable stones, cut and polished,
and were borne by all official personages, from his majesty
to the district officer ; not, however, for their value, but as
ensigns of authority ; either on state occasions by the em-
peror or when his nobles went to court to pay their dutiful
homage, some of which were held in both hands before
the face while in his majesty's presence ; or by princes and
governors, who carried them in their hands, to show that
they were invested with office by their sovereign. But
while all had the same official character, they varied in
form and sizej according to the dynasty to which they
belonged, and the special idea they were intended to
symbolize. The sceptre used at the Deluge || seems to
have combined the properties of an official token and a
mystic symbol. " On it, embroidered in splendid co-
lours," says my author, " were two ancient seal characters,
whose meaning is unknown. During the reign of Seuen-
Ho, a vessel with three feet was found with the same two

* ZC Mr/ *' repeated ftr forms sceptre.

f Hea, B.C. 2000 ; H» f B.C. 1200 ; Ckow, B.C. 1000, . .

X See Plates^Nos. 1, 2. || See FUteNo. 3.

M..>

}} — i—

x ^

^

■4 *

A

•o

/

/

;/

, %y&*\

ANCIENT SCEPTRES. 269

symbols engraven upon it, in a river at Tse-nan, the capital
of Shan-tung ; whence, as ancient sages and princes who
had performed any meritorious service must present an
offering to the Supreme Ruler, like the sacrifices on altars
of earth,* erected to topical deities, so there must have
been, after the victims were offered, sacred things, such
as metal vessels and carved stones, buried in the earth, or
sunk in the waters ; and as the vessel found in the river
bore the same symbols as the sceptre, it is natural to
conclude they were both thrown into the river together.
The sceptre having been found in an imperial district
during the Tang dynasty, the words ' Kae-yuen's impe-
rial district,' are engraven on the reverse side." Other
national emblems are designed to preserve historical re-
collections. The sceptre of the royal sacrifices of the
Chow dynasty relates to the worship of antiquity ; the
sceptre bearing figures of the silkworm, and of grain,
suggests the original sources of public wealth : ensigns
armorial, adapted to the different orders of nobility, in-
dicate personal rank ; the auspicious signet, on which the
Pa-kwa are drawn, recals to the mind the origin of the
universe. Still there was a sacred or superstitious sen-
timent involved in the official token. According to an
ancient ode, " the queen, attended by the ladies of her
palace, and . bearing the silkworm sceptre in her hand,
proceeded on an auspicious day in the middle of spring
to the weaving apartment to invoke blessings on the silk-
worm ;*' doubtless in imitation of the ancient queen,f who
is said to have originated the nurture of it. The sceptre
of grain was borne by the emperor to the usual place of

* S«c Plata No. 4.

t Yocn-fci, the wife of Hwrnng-t* : B.C. 2330.

270 SACRIFICIAL VESSELS.

sacrifice outside the city, where, on the first day of the
second month of spring, as high priest of the empire,
and the special patron of agriculture, he prayed to the
Supreme Ruler for a blessing on grain.

Vessels used in performing the rites of sacrifice, and on
public occasions, civil or ceremonial, solemn or festive,
were preserved with great care and veneration in the
temple of ancestors : they were variously designated ac-
cording to the aera of their invention, their particular
shape, or their special use. Some bore symbolical in-
scriptions, others the figures of monstrous deities; but
the more ancient were of the simplest construction, des-
titute alike of ornament and writing, and were probably
in use before the invention of letters.

The generic term for the whole class, which also desig-
nates a particular kind, is now appropriated to signify the
invariable principle of rectitude implanted by Heaven in
the mind of man. Abstract significations are also attached
to specific names ; as " nobility " to the name of a vessel
with three feet, from which libations of wine were poured
during the rites of sacrifice. It was rung on festive occa-
sions to caution the guests to avoid intoxication, by
persons specially appointed for this purpose. The name
of an upright vessel with two handles, by which it is
presented to a superior, has originated the term for honour
and respect. The "victim vessel," adorned with repre-
sentations of the clouds on its surface, was most probably
used at the principal national sacrifices, since its name
denotes victims offered in sacrifice, which must be without
blemish. Several of this class are named after the dif-
ferent animals, to which their shape is made conformable ;
as the elephant, chosen not only for its size, but for its

EMBLEMATICAL VESSELS. 271

proboscis, which was the part of the body first formed,*
and employed to take up its means of sustenance. There
is also the duck vessel, shaped like the duck, because it
swims skilfully on the water without being immersed, and
thereby warns persons against drinking wine to excess :
it is made in conformity with the ritual of the great
national festival. Various other devices were adopted to
preserve sobriety; as thunder clouds depicted on the
surface of the vessel, to intimate the terrible effects of
intoxication. Some vessels were made to perpetuate a
remembrance of the ancient simplicity of manners ; as the
gourd-cup, in imitation of the gourd or calabash, from
which wine was drunk before the manufactured cup was
known. Others are associated with extraordinary legends,
which have been preserved with the reverential credulity
always attendant on remote usages handed down by su-
perstitious ignorance ; as the " peach cup," made to re-
semble the stone of a famous peach tree, the emblem of
long life, which blossoms once in three thousand years,
and three thousand years afterwards bears fruit: the
globular part of the cup is finely ornamented, to represent
cloudy vapour ; on one side of which are engraven ten
characters of the cycle, which signify thirty-seven years,
twenty-one months, and thirty-four days ; on the other,
the correspondent sentence is, " The Royal Mother of the
West bestowed the immortal peach in the palace of
Seuen-Ho;" according to the legendary tale that the
emperor (Woo-te) built an elevated terrace of mud to
penetrate heaven, on which the royal mother, who had
eaten of the fruit of the tree, descended, during seven days

• The Chinese consider the note of erery animal to be the part of the foetus
first formed in the womh. «

272 EMBLEMATICAL VESSELS.

and seven nights, to discuss with him the principles of
reason. A round basket for containing grain used in
sacrifice is susceptible of a moral interpretation ; since to
say to a person, — " there is a part of the basket not
polished/' expresses delicately some defect in his conduct.
The superstitious notions, that good or bad fortune was
attached to several of the vessels, might arise from their
.consecration to religious uses, whilst their being deposited
in the temple of ancestors, a receptacle not only for the
relics of antiquity, but for the solemn symbols of ancestral
worship, would also tend to superinduce upon some a
sacred character of which they were originally destitute.

The last vessel I shall notice is a cup made of the horn
of the unicorn, whose name it bears, the shape of which is
seen in the drawings already referred to. An ancient
circumstance connected with this cup may probably have
given rise to a modern custom common at Chinese feasts,
while it also tends to illustrate some figurative expressions
in the sacred Scriptures. This custom, which prevails
extensively among the lower classes, consists in guests at
an entertainment compelling each other to drink wine as
a forfeit. Two persons seated together guess the number
of fingers suddenly thrown out and withdrawn by each
other, when he who mistakes the number is obliged to
drink a cup or more of wine, which is thence designated
the wine of punishment. A custom not dissimilar in some
respects to the old Roman game of chance, called micare
digitis, and probably of very ancient origin in China ;
since persons convicted of certain offences, or who had on
any account incurred the royal displeasure, were condemned
to drink wine out of a cup called the cup of punishment ;
wherefore, when this cup was given at a public assembly

x-

ANCIENT CUPS. 273

to any officer of the government, the act was always under-
stood to imply official censure, even though the party
were ignorant of any direct accusation. The Scripture
reader will be reminded of such expressions as " the wine-
cup of his fury,"* — " the cup of trembling/' — " the cup
that my father hath given me shall I not drink it ?" — and
others of the same import, used to denote the punishment
inflicted by God on transgressors. It does not appear,
however, that any deleterious ingredient was infused into
the cup, similar to the potion ancient criminals were com-
pelled to drink ; but that the cup iUelf being made of the
horn of the unicorn, the instrument with which that crea-
ture gored other animals, was administered as a mark
of displeasure, soon to be followed by punishment. The
figurative use of the term " cup " was various in the Holy
Scriptures ; but we are not informed whether any thing
in its shape, or the material of which it was made,
pointed out a specific purpose. Joseph's servant, indeed,
designated the cup secreted in Benjamin's sack, as that
in which his lord divineth, or maketh experiments ; lan-
guage which, though used then to intimidate the Israelites,
must have been in accordance with an Egyptian custom,
which they understood, or it would have been without
force ; but whether the practice involved reference to the
shape, material, or use of the vessel, does not appear.
The same Hebrew word, which Buxtorf translates by
scyphus, is rendered by the English translators in Exodus
" bowl."f

Whether convenience, custom, or legislative enactment,
gave rise to the great diversity of shape and material,
found in cups of very early date, is uncertain ; but the

• Jer. ut. 15. t Bsodat ixv. 33.

T

274 AKCIEHT CITP8.

well-known usage of blessing the cop, and passing it
round among the guests at public and social meals, no
doubt originated in the use of wine poured out in liba-
tions to the gods, of which the worshippers partook as
regularly and solemnly as of the victims offered in sacri-
fice: rites which were most probably derived from the
ancient worship rendered to Jehovah. There is a very
ancient custom, still prevalent on festive occasions, of
pouring out a cup of wine as a eucharistic libation to the
earth, for the many blessings it confers. The ceremony,
which must be performed by the oldest person in the
assembly, has given rise to the term tse-tsew, — " the sa-
crificer of wine," — now applied to the duties of one who
presides over a public institution; and, among other
offices, to designate the head of the college established at
Peking, for Mung-koo Tartar youth connected with the
royal family. From the close connection subsisting be-
tween sacrifice and feasting, libation and drinking, the
cup would naturally become the emblem of cheerfulness
and benevolence ; but how it became the token of sorrow
and anguish does not so plainly appear, except it were
derived from the practice of those nations which disposed
of state criminals by the administration of poison. In a
Chinese work of a very different character from my pre-
sent authority in antiquities, I met with an allusion to a
cup of cold water, which savours of the same pastoral
origin as that contained in the well-known passage, " a
cup of cold water given to a disciple." It was in a mis-
cellaneous work on customs and manners written in the
north of China, where primitive pastoral usages would be
preserved for the longest period in the greatest simplicity.
An individual is described as asking a person who had

ANCIENT BELLS. 276

been adopted into hit family in infancy — " Have you,
ever since you were a little child, had occasion to ghre
out one cup of cold or warm water, to purchase a single
article of clothing?"

Bells have been known in China from the highest an-
tiquity, during which heralds commissioned by the sove-
reign used them to convene assemblies of the people to
hear the imperial will, and receive instruction. The most
celebrated of these bells was one with a wooden tongue,
made use of in the army, as well as to call the multitude
together. Confucius alluded to it when he said, " Heaven
would make him a wooden-tongued bell ;" that is, during
his retirement from office would employ him as a herald
in the highways, and places of public resort, to commu-
nicate the divine purposes to the people, and rouse them
to avenge their wrongs on the government Three kinds
of bells only are represented in this work : the bell of
heaven, so called because supernaturally produced, with
a handle like that of the Confucian bell, of a clear and
an agreeable sound ; the period of its invention is un-
known : " the serpentine-handle bell," adorned with
crystallizations on the outer surface, but the interior,
like the Confucian bell, whose sound when struck is dis-
tinctly heard at the distance of a hundred paces ; it was
invented during the Shang or Chow dynasty : and " the
round knotted bell/' in allusion to the figures on its sur-
face, of a later period, and, consequently, more ornate
than the older specimens. Connected with the use of
these bells was the only public oratory anciently known
in China ; either when the imperial messenger promulgated
his sovereign *s orders among assemblies of the people,
or the patriot denounced the existing government as about

t2

276 INSTRUMENTS OF MUSIC.

to be sacrificed for its crimes to the vengeance of Heaven
— and hence the image of a wooden-tongued bell to de-
note a public instructor.

Musical instruments are of ancient origin ; and, if we
believe the old classics, their effect was quite overpower-
ing. " Confucius," says the Shang-Lun, " after listening
to the tones of the Shaou, did not taste animal food for
three months." But no such power, instrumental or
vocal, seems to have descended to the modern Chinese ;
who have, indeed, notes to distinguish different sounds,
without skill to produce any harmonious combination of
them. Nor are their instruments of a superior kind.

Musical stones are mentioned as relics of antiquity,
which were probably in use to aid vocal and test instru-
mental music. A specimen given is called " the adjusting-
rule stone," whose sound corresponded to the shang note
of the Chinese gamut ; another when struck is said to
have produced a shrill sound of extraordinary loudness,
and perhaps gave the key-note in singing. To corre-
spond with the ideas entertained of ancient music by the
moderns, there must have been instruments of extraordi-
nary power and effect ; for where sober history fails to
gratify the veneration felt by the antiquary, sacred and
sublime properties of an imaginary character are intro-
duced to supply the deficiency. The kin, a kind of lyre,
which, when appropriated to sacred music, is accompanied
with burning incense, and supported by the most ancient
and venerable collection of odes, placed under one end
of it, is said in the " music classic " to represent by its
length three hundred and sixty days; by its breadth,
the six points of the universe; by its thickness, the
four seasons ; by its five strings, the original elements ;

GIRDLES AND BELTS. 277

to which two other strings were subsequently added, ex-
pressive 'of the harmony subsisting between princes and
ministers ; the thirteen resemblances or changes are equi-
valent to the "twelve notes of music, one for each month,
and the one over to the intercalary month. It was an-
ciently made of the tung wood, but afterwards of stones,
by which its sounds, under the influence of the wind, re-
sembled those of the drum;" and hence it would seem to
have been a kind of iEolian lyre. Great veneration is
attached to the kin, at the present day, and also to the
sih, usually associated with it, but not mentioned by my
author. The only other musical instruments he notices
are the sang, with a collection of tubes the size of a
goose's quill, placed in a globular vessel ; # the "hollow
seaou," something like the German flute, of which there
are two figures — the one in an upright, the other in an
horizontal position, called teih f which seems to designate
a flute, blown at the side or at one end ; and the phoenix,
seaou, with twenty-three reeds or tubes, like a goose's
feathers — all which are wind instruments ; the " suspended
drum," placed on a stand, with two balls hanging from
its centre, which, when the drum is shaken, beat the
ends of it ; and the pih-pan, or Chinese Castanet, made of
wood resembling mahogany, and used to divide songs
into verses, with their proper pauses. When we treat of
Chinese poetry, their theories on music shall be noticed.

Girdles, sashes, or belts, have been long worn in China,
as a part of official costume, and by gentlemen in the
superior classes of society. Several specimens are intro-
duced of the more ancient sort, which are described under
the somewhat quaint and singular title of "cloudy dragon

♦ See PUte VIII. Fig. 2.

278 ORNAMENTAL SASHES.

court belts, white as the fat of sheep." The oldest were
made of leather with two ends hanging down, which were
in use from the highest antiquity to the time of the Tsin
dynasty.* One of the above title is said to have thirteen
devices upon it, a stone at each end of splendid brightness,
with representations of clouds and dragons, and rows of
ingeniously carved stones, intermingled with fine hair. In
the first year of Shang-yuen, of the Tang dynasty,f civil
and military officers were ordered to bring to court a hand
napkin, a money purse, a sword, and a coarse stone.
The highest rank (the third) in both services wore belts of
gold, diamonds, and thirteen devices ; the next in the
descending series (fourth), those of gold, and eleven de-
vices ; the fifth, of ten devices ; the sixth, horn, and nine
devices; the seventh, silver belts; the eighth and ninth,
stone belts, with eight devices ; while the common people
have brass and iron belts, with six devices. At present,
these belts ought to be worn only by ministers, whom the
emperor himself specially appoints. The next order, Pei,
is much more tasteful and ornamental than the pre-
ceding, of which I have given some specimens ; particu-
larly one composed of diamonds, another representing the
male and female phoenix;;}; and a third, made of rings
linked together: this last specimen has thirteen strings,
constituted by a chain of rings, from each of which,
except the three joined at both ends, a bell is suspended,
which, by reason of a valuable stone within it, emits a
" clear, prolonged, attractive sound." " The workmen,"
it is said, " made them beautiful revolvers ; but the
ancients had not the fairy work, literally 'true devils'

* This dynasty existed from A.D. 286 to 416.
t A.D. 745. $ See Plate IX. Fig. 2.

ANCIENT RINGS. 279

work;'" by which we are to understand, drawings of
fabulous animals, deities, monsters, and genii. History
records that the superior of the state, T$e-nan, was pre*
sented with nine bells in tribute from another state ; and
that he commanded one of the ladies of his court forth-
with to adorn them with golden flowers, which became a
pattern to belts of this kind in future ; and hence, per-
haps, the origin of a sort of jingling sash worn by
females at their marriage. To other specimens of girdles,
given in different dynasties, are added ornamental appen-
dages; as rings, precious stones, clasps for sashes and
knots.

Rings are of very ancient origin ; we find them fre-
quently mentioned in the Old Testament When Pharaoh
appointed Joseph to be the governor of the land of Egypt,
he bestowed a ring upon him ; doubtless in token of the
official power with which he was invested, as well as of
personal regard. A ring is the symbol of eternity with
the Chinese, who say it has no beginning; and hence
very naturally regard it as emblematical of dignity and
authority. Two rings are especially worthy of regard :
one perfect, the other defective ; the former an emblem
of the sovereign's favour, the latter, of his displeasure,
as shown towards his public servants. In olden times,
when officers who had been banished to the frontier for
raal-adniinistration, had completed the term of their
sentence, the one or other of these rings was sent to
them by the emperor : if it were the perfect one, it denoted
that he was about to restore them to their official duties,
despite their temporary disgrace, without detriment to
character or emolument; but if the defective ring were
sent, it was a token that the offender's connection with

280 ANCIENT RINGS.

the government was forthwith dissolved. A similar prac-
tice seems to have obtained in Egypt, according to the
well-known incident in Joseph's history, which was instru-
mental in raising him to his high station. I do not mean
that a defective ring was sent by Pharaoh to the baker,
and a whole one to the butler, though this is by no means
improbable, from the honour then attached to that token ;
but that the practice of the two courts of China and
Egypt in restoring officers to full honour, after what
Europeans would consider an indelible brand of disgrace,
was the same, and therefore it is reasonable to infer that
formalities attending it were not dissimilar. For the
figure of the defective ring, to which I have alluded, see
the plate : # it is designated " the incomplete ring of the
blue stone and fragrant herb of the Han dynasty;" a
name derived from the materials of which it is composed,
the herb which its form resembles, and the opening in it,
which is represented at the bottom of the drawing.
Various other rings are described as bearing the figures of
different fairies, some of which were worn as female orna-
ments ; but the complete and incomplete circles only are
given as apt similitudes of power fully restored and finally
withdrawn.

A specimen is furnished of an ancient court bodkin
used in arranging a lady's hair; it is described as silken
white, without mixture or defect, ornamented with cloudy
vapour, and as having concave and convex surfaces, of
elegant workmanship, probably of the Shang or Chow
dynasty. It is with such an appendage as this to the
head-dress that the marriage ceremony of braiding the
hair of a young lady is performed among the Tartars.

* See Plate IX. Fig. 1.

It V

ANCIENT 8BAL8. 281

The same object is attained by knotting a sash worn by
females ; from which the phrase, " to knot the sash/' has
come to signify a marriage contract.

Seals are used in China, as in other civilized countries,
to give authority to official acts; the only specimens
described in this author are those which represent the
seals of the Tsin and Han dynasties ; the first of which is
styled " the imperial seal transmitted by T8in. ,, It is
four inches square, and three inches and a half high.
One side of it is ornamented with fairy writing, on
the reverse are engraven in seal characters the words,
" Received from Heaven the decree of long life and
eternal splendour." Hie inventor of this seal was the
first universal ruler of China, to whom we have elsewhere
alluded as subjugating the whole empire, burying alive the
literati, and building the great wall ; who, whatever signets,
sceptres, or other official ensigns, were previously in use,
was also the author of that national instrument which has
ever since been designated the great seal of the empire.
There are three ancient forms ; two of which bear the same
inscription on the reverse although there is a slight differ-
ence in the figures on the obverse ; the other differs a little
in words, but not in sense; it is literally, " Heaven's
decree : the imperial emperor long life and prosperity ;"
that is, the possession of the seal is a pledge of Heaven *s
approbation, which secures long life and eternal renown.
The seals of the Han dynasty are of a circular shape. On
one specimen there are the words u eternal renown" on
one side, to correspond with the engraving of an imaginary
animal on the other, which, it is said, knew the faithful,
whom it spared, but gored the specious and insincere to

282 THE NATIONAL SEAL.

destruction; and from this circumstance the invention
and constant use of the instrument arose. Another
specimen is the " connected rings' small seal," on the
reverse of which are engraven the words, " great peace,
ten thousand years," equivalent to the European phrases,
" profound peace, God save the king." The national
seal now in ordinary use is called ^ se, and bears words
which when translated mean, " the gem of the imperial
pencil of ten thousand springs ;" from which the seals of
mercantile bodies and corporations, of private individuals,
and of magistrates in their official capacity, differ both in
name, form, and substance; and it is made of some
precious stone, probably chrysopras, since that was a
favourite material for ancient sceptres. Other seals are
made of gold, silver, or copper, and are square or oblong,
according to the rank of the possessor. An official seal
is designated yin, and the name of the keeper of that seal
in the province chaou-mo : literally, an overlooker and a
grinder; words which could hardly have been chosen
more appositely had they been designed to portray the
exact official character and conduct of the party who
holds it ; the reason, however, of this designation does
not appear. A different term is used to denote the
keeper of the seals attached to the six boards at Peking.
Common seals of private individuals are made of wood,
on which the name of the party is cut in the seal
characters of the language, from which an impression is
taken by red pigment.

Specimens of coins are given, but these are not nu-
merous. Indeed, the only production of the mint in
China is a copper coin, called by Europeans cash, by

B;¥:^

COINS AND MEDALS.

283

natives tscen. It has a square
hole in the centre with the words
tung paou, " precious circulating
medium/' and the reigning em-
peror's name inscribed on one
side thus. Several inscriptions
are furnished by my author, such
as, " Heaven's emoluments, eternal
renown, overflowing happiness equal to Heaven, long
life and joy ten thousand years, the great peace national
gem, the originating source, pervading influence, success-
ful effort, and moral goodness of human life." The same
characters applied to nature denote the stability and
fitness of things. The Chinese characters which repre-
sent these and similar ideas are engraven on a circular
piece of copper with a square hole in the centre. The
first of these coins is said to have originated with Wan-te,
during the Han dynasty, of the state Wei, who, when he
had ascended the throne, ordered his ministers to examine
the treasuries, who found gold, precious stones, and se-
veral thousand strings of coin, on which were characters
written in the seal, official, running hand, and plain
writing ; this money was distributed among his assembled
courtiers, who forthwith gave it to the world, saying,
according to the statistics of Wei, " this money, with what
is subsequently noticed, belongs to the Han dynasty."

The next class of coins is denominated the subjugating
triumphant class, of which there are two or three speci-
mens denominated money, though their use does not
appear ; as the divine dragon's,* the money spider's, and
the water spirit's subjugating coin ; the former of which

* See Pkto XI.

284 ANCIENT CAPS.

is described as having the upper part ornamented with a
divine dragon, and the body with figures of gods, men,
dragons, and birds. In describing one of them the writer
remarks, all these ornaments must have been intended
for the toilettes of the princesses of the house of Tang.
There is another class of medals, as they ought to be
called, though still designated tseen, which were distributed
by princesses of the house of Tang among their officers ;
this kind of stamp has the figure of a pentagon in the
centre, with lines from the five angles to the circumference,
within which are inscribed five characters, one in each
recess, the outer line of which is a curve ; the following is a
specimen: — "Happiness; long-life; many male children.' '
The last of the series of Chinese antiquities, to which I
shall allude, is that of the caps worn at court during the
Han dynasty. Here, as usual, about twelve specimens are
furnished. The mere names, however, of the greater part
will suffice, which, as will be perceived from a rapid
enumeration of them, are derived from the never-failing
sources of variety to the Chinese — the celestial, terres-
trial, and animal worlds. The first specimen is styled,
" the orbicular cloudy court cap of nine seams." The
cap of this pattern, with nine seams,* was exclusively
appropriated to imperial majesty ; with seven to a noble ;
With Jive to a magistrate; and with three to one of the
literati. It was of exquisite workmanship, and invented
by an emperor, who never suffered his ministers to wear
it. There is another specimen, called the red lotus or
water-lily cap, to which flower the shape of the cap is
made conformable. There is no record of the period of
its invention, which was probably very ancient ; and sup-

* Sec Plate XII. Fig. 2.

MUi-.uiiu

8ACBBD VESTMENTS. 285

plies additional collateral evidence that its sacredness was
derived from Egyptian customs and practices to which we
have previously referred. There is another specimen
worn by the empress, which has also the designation
seven gems, added to that of white water-lily. Other
names, taken from historical allusions, incidental circum-
stances, or some resemblance to the object, are the
swallow-tail, the audience cap, the square mountain, the
retired scholar, the waning moon, and the fish's-tail, cap.
There were caps in use at sacrifices, worn by the offici-
ating priest, specimens of which will be found among the
illustrations. Some of these were indeed crowns* worn by
ancient princes, who, as we have remarked, were the
high priests of the empire ; and, curious enough, a linen
crown was in olden times the dress of ceremony: the
only distinction between the sovereign's and a nobleman's
consisting in the numbei of gems attached to it, of which
288 was the sacred number appropriated to the emperor, f
Linen seems to have been in high repute all over the East
in ancient times, as we read of the fine linen of Egypt,
and of the linen garments of the Hebrews in discharging
their sacred offices. The Chinese appear, in the earliest
ages, to have had some dress consecrated to the service of
the priesthood, which was first of all, as it would seem
from the delineation of it, J made of the skins of animals ;
the most natural as well as the most significant material
for such custom. State caps are sometimes made of the
fur of animals, or the down and feathers of birds.

The manners, customs, and superstitious ceremonies of
China and Egypt, no doubt, in some points, bear a strong

* See Plate XII. Fig. 1. f See PUte XIII. P%. 1.

% See PUte II Fig. 2.

-(TEltSTlTlOrs f'llAHMS.

mutual resemblance; but if their claims to priority were
submitted to investigation, it might be difficult, consider-
ing the high antiquity of the Chinese, to determine which
was the prototype. Egypt, usually regarded as the
earliest civilized community in the world, is subsequent
in point of time to the rise of the first sovereigns of
China, if we adopt the most credible of the native systems
of chronology. It is, however, little to be depended upon.
Fun- he, the founder of the Chinese monarchy, lived more
than a thousand years before Mencs or Mizrairn, the first
king of Egypt, and consequently a considerable period
anterior to the Deluge. Several kings in China, according
to the same authority, flourished at the same period with
some of the most celebrated rulers of nations described in
sacred history. It is not, therefore, in the date of events,
but in the coincidence of facts and the similarity of
usages, that we are to seek for evidence to confirm the
theory of an ancient affinity between Egypt and China.

The ancient Egyptians, according to Horapollo, were
accustomed to symbolize personal guardianship, by a
male head painted red, and a female head painted yellow
— both royal colours in China — placed in contrary direc-
tions, under whose power they were secure from natural
calamities, " even without the aid of symbolic characters ;"
to which, however, in common with other Oriental nations,
both ancient and modem, they also attributed m.my efiaG*
tive virtues. It is in the supposed inherent power of
letters, symbols, or hieroglyphs, to guard those who wear
them about their persons from malignant influences, that
I would now trace a similitude between the two uations.
The Chinese inscribe words and sentences on their girdles,
Bud pUtft then on the lintels and posts of their doors,

DBMOHS AND EVIL SPIRITS. 287

not only as moral sayings worthy to be remembered and
practically observed, but from the impression that they
shall thereby be protected from noxious diseases and
calamities often inflicted by invisible beings. The symbols
mentioned by Horapollo frequently occur on Egyptian
monuments, which so far confirm the truth of his state*
ments ; but from the use of the word +vXaxrupia by his
translator to represent the original word, it is probable
the author intended by it certain charms suspended from
the neck, or attached to other parts of the body, to defend
the wearer from the influence of evil genii. The word
Sai/iiMv, in Pagan authors, it has been remarked, is used
to denote both good and evil spirits, but in the New
Testament it is chiefly confined to the latter sense. The
Chinese word fy 9 answering to demon, usually signifies
spirit in a bad sense, as its composition — fQ a fiend-like
head f £\ the fradulent craftiness of a fiend, and *jjU
a man — would imply ; whence its primary significations
are — the spirit of a dead man, a ghost, a demon, a devil,
and that spiritual state of existence to which human
beings return at death. It is also associated with words
strongly expressive of evil, as ^ jjS^ fiends, fairies, hob-
goblins ; ^ jjftji * a malevolent fairy or elf, said to pro-
ceed from mountains and woods to injure human beings ;
f& fe wicked superhuman spirits— devils supposed to
afflict human beings. But when & is united with Jpf
— (always taken in a good sense)— as ^ T^ it denotes
spirits in general, the human spirit, gods from whom aid
is expected, or what Plato intended by demon as the
|>ersonal guardian of virtuous men.

* Kwri-meJ — an df or mountain (airy, with the face of a man and the body
of a four-footed brute, which delights to tempt the human spadea.

288 mm, incantations,

The character V([) which signifies genii — Plato's demons
of the lowest class — is composed of Ji^ a man, and ^]J
a hill. It represents a superior class of human spirits,
who, having been deified, dwell in mountains and hills
remote from human habitations; to whom no temples are
consecrated, and who, even the most eminent of them,
are not of very high antiquity; although supposed to
have the power of being visible and invisible at plpasiu.%
ofraisiugthedead,of changing, by a species of stone which
they have discovered, whatever they touch into gold, and of
effecting at pleasure various other wonderful transmuta-
tions. Their eminent position has been attained by abstrac-
tion from the world, to which eight, including two females,
have risen higher than any other. The same term YJ]
is given to heaven, gods, earth, water, and the human soul,
as the five genii by way of eminence.

This class of deities is frequently invoked by the
Chinese in superstitious usages, to which they are much
addicted. I have before me a volume in manuscript, con-
taining various specimens of spells, incantations, amulets,
and charms, employed especially by the sects of Fiih and
Taou. They are written indifferent forms, MODld&tg to I In-
specific object sought to be attained ; some, when danger
threatens, are intended to invoke the interposition of tute-
lary deities — the gods of the land and grain, of thunder and
lightning, of a particular mountain, valley, river, or dis-
trict; others to expel demons, to prevent diseases, to cure
sick persons, to purify certaiu vessels and things, and
vert them from common to sacred uses — as water, domestic
utensils, and instruments of music — and to remove moral
or physical impurities attached to the person. Th
companying charm, for expelling demoniacal influences,

AMULETS AMD CHARMS. 289

may be considered as a specimen of that class to which
the expulsive power is attached ; it must be written in
red ink.

gm i/ The three Chinese characters, beginning

X J X fr° m the "ght, are — fire, wind, and thunder.

I 1§ I The chief virtue of these charms is supposed

to reside in the symbols themselves ; either in

the kind of characters selected, or their particular mode

of collocation ; but the supplicatory form, to insure its

success, must be burned ; and if it have reference to the

cure of personal maladies, its ashes must be drunk by the

patient in a cup of tea. A charm expressive of confidence

is made thus : with directions that, when the demon

does not descend according to expectation, it shall

sa

be burned, with the written paper accompanying it,
to compel his descent. All the superstitious systems
of the Chinese seem to take it for granted, as a primary
principle, that fire is a medium of never-failing efficacy
in human intercourse with spiritual beings.

The following sentences constitute a charm for purify*
ing the heart : — " The great supreme, felicitous star,
answers to its changes without resting. It expels diabo-
lical influence and binds monsters; preserves life and
protects the person. In wisdom, intelligence, splendour,
and purity, the heart and spirit have rest and peace. The
three souls, of which man is constituted, endure for ever:
— the sentient principle never fails."

The form for purifying a water-vessel is thus com-
posed : — " The highest point of illimitable space, and
the essence of spiritual nonentity, mutually participate
supreme sovereignty without likeness or name. They
go out of existence into nonentity, the centre between

v

290 INCANTATIONS, SPELLS,

which is truth. The heavens were preceded by chaos,
afterwards separated into four visible forms, rising to the
utmost limits of the nine orders (of the heavens) above,
and penetrating the deepest recesses of Hades beneath.
An intelligent mind without obscurity, and an enlightened
soul. Imperial genii ! honourable and majestic, come and
assemble in our hall. All changes terminate in unity :
unity renovated becomes purity, purity issues in stillness,
quietude, and perfect tranquillity."

In this charm reference is made to opinions prevalent
in China, on the origin of the universe. In the following
pencil charm, its efficacy appears to rest on the power
of isolated symbols : — " This pencil is most extraordi-
nary. Heaven's writers send down elegant and famous
pencils. Write ^ heaven, and heaven opens. Write jij},
earth, and the earth rends. Write J\^ man, and man
lives. Write ^S, demon, and demons perish." In the
special chartn for invoking genii, number, colour, and
sound, seem to be important appendages to the form.
"When you write ~^ q ikree stars, repeat in a recita-
tive tone — three stars which produced me, come: — three
stars which nourish me, coiue : — three stars which protect
me, come." The directions are, that it is to be written

stW w '*k vermilion thus, which signifies " the im-

-^^- perial precepts of the three stars :" — and that the
devotee is to write the seven strokes from right to left, and

•tfi recite the sounds yen, nen, too, che, ckih, tha, lire.

/3 Another called the presentation charm requires,

^ when it is written within a circle of nine folds,

that there be repeated the nine characters : — " heaven,

£S?m$\ earth, thunder, wind, metal, wood, water, tire,

Xj\ 1DJ soil."

ANUI.BTS, AMD CHAHMB. 291

The stork-charm, or genii riding upon it as an imperial
vehicle, seems to belong to the sect of Taou ; since " th«
imperial orders of the Great Supreme Laou-keun" — the
founder of that sect — is inscribed within the form of the
stork thus : — The directions are to write within
the neck of the stork, " beg and beseech the
heavenly genii to descend quickly," and then to
paste it seven times. Other forms have the num-
ber seven attached to them, which will remind the
Scripture reader of the sacred number so fre-
quently referred to in the Book of the Revela-
jK /l tion : seven is also the sacred number of the
^"* Egyptians; and the stork, one of their most
significant emblems of filial piety.

Before concluding this subject, it may be proper to
remark, that the two words #£ and QP constitute the
designations of all the amulets, spells, and charms re-
cognized in the work from which the preceding translations
have been made. The &£ refer to such as are written in
a particular form or order, which, when they are designed
to ward off calamities, must be worn on the person, or
pasted od the posts of the doors ; but in order to cure
existing evils they must be burned, and the ashes dissolved
in water, or drunk. The Chinese account of them is, that
they were originally made of bamboo, and afterwards
of slips of wood from the peach tree, but that at present
they consist of written characters, on the nature and order
of which human happiness or misery depends. 9P which
originally means to curse, or imprecate vengeance on
others, also signifies blessing, and in this sense is recited
at the time the >J» to which it appertains, is prepared, as
a form of prayer. Meditation, invocation, recitatives, and
v'2

292

CHARMS, REMEMBRANCERS,

the application of fire or water, seem to be the instrumen -
tal causes by which the ceremony is rendered efficient.
The Jit and the PR are exemplified in the following
specimens r — with this charm (or %$-) ffll this prayer
■^•lv or PP must be repeated. " Heaven's one produced
^= water. Earth's six perfects it. The one (unity of
j3S essence) and six (four cardinal points and the zenith
•^fS anr j nadir) having become united, are based on the
five elements (water, fire, wood, metal, earth). I now eject
impurity from my mouth, and immediately the dust flies.
I serve the Supreme Ruler, to whose imperial majesty
I humbly submit my statements. I, moreover, presume to
supplicate the immortal genii of the Pung-lae mountain."

The Confucian mode differs from both the preceding
forms : it consists of writing short sentences and select
symbols on the ends of a silken sash, both which hang
down in front of the body, avowedly as a remembrancer of
the wise and virtuous sayings of ancient sages, but not,
it is to be feared, unaccompanied with superstitious notions
of its power to avert evil and create temporal prosperity.
Indeed it is morally impossible for a Chinaman to look
upon the symbols of his language, irrespective of their
meaning or the position they occupy, without a kind of
idolatrous attachment. This practice, however, has given
rise to a moral precept founded in the highest wisdom : it
iB, " be careful not merely to write the sentiment on your
sashes, but to engrave it on your hearts."

A minister of state, who had faithfully served the Sung
dynasty, was requested to transfer his services to the Yuen
or Mung-koo Tartar dynasty ; on his refusal, he was be-
headed, and after his death, sentences selected from the
writings of Confucius and Mencius, with reflections upon

AND PHYLACTERIES. 293

them, were found written within his girdle. This circum-
stance is noticed by native writers, as an illustration of his
superior principles. In the early ages of the world, sacred
precepts and valuable moral maxims were preserved among
different nations by means of inscriptions on conspicuous
objects and in places of public resort. The Israelites*
were commanded to bind inspired words for a sign upon
their hands and as frontlets between their eyes, and to
write them upon the posts of their houses, and on their
gates. This mode of propagating Divine Truth, rendered
necessary by the circumstances of those on whom it was
enjoined, was at once striking and very effective ; and from
the perverse imitation of it no doubt many superstitious
observances sprung up among other nations, as well as that
of the Jews themselves ; although, as a mere vehicle of
public notification, the same method was not unlikely to
have suggested itself to civilized communities, having
intercourse with each other. The phylacteries of the
Egyptians and the Jews correspond in the design of their
origin to the girdles of the Chinese, whose practice, for
civil and superstitious purposes, of writing inscriptions
over their gates, and on the posts and lintels of their
doors, exactly coincides with that of the ancient Hebrews
and Egyptians.

The farther we ascend to the north of China the more
closely do we find their habits resemble those of the
ancient tribes of the earth, whether recorded in sacred or
profane history, especially in their alleged intercourse with
imaginary deities and disembodied spirits. The nomadic
tribes, though they possess no great range of literature,
may be confidently looked to for the genuine preservation

• Deuterooony rt 8, 9.

294

FAMILIAR SPIRITS.

of ancient customs and superstitions, either retained in
unbroken succession from the first fathers of our race, or
derived from a people no longer in possession of what
was once deemed most sacred. Whatever interest may
have been thrown around the re-appearance of departed
shades by the fertile fancy of heathen poets, Holy Writ
presents heart- stir ring narrations of simple facts, which
may well be accounted the basis of theories and fictions
transferred under poetic imagery to other scenes and seras.
It would also seem, that visions from heaven to the an-
cient patriarchs and prophets, through the medium of
which God formerly governed the world, had been made
the pretext of usurping supernatural authority, not only
by utter strangers, but even enemies to the divine eco-
nomy. Saul's severe enactments against those who pro-
fessed to hold converse with familiar spirits, and unveil
the mysteries of futurity, shows to what height the dia-
bolical art had attained in his day, while his own recourse
to the very class of persons he had proscribed strongly
evinces his affiance in the truth of their pretensions.
Without inquiring what appeared to Saul, whether Samuel
himself, or a satanic personification of him, it is manifest
from this and other instances recorded in Scripture, that
the people of that age believed both in apparitions, and
in their power to reveal future events.

Virgil, several hundred years later, describes the hero
of his poem, when about to migrate to an unknown land,
as seeking the sanction of disembodied spirits ; — a senti-
ment derived by tradition from the communications of
Jehovah to the Jewish people, on which, doubtless, the
whole order of priesthood and every variety of oracles
among the heathen were ultimately founded.

NECROMANCY. 296

The Chinese are excessively addicted to necromancy.
The following piece, called " dancing to the gods/' will
illustrate their mode of intercourse with departed shades,
and the rites with which the superstitious observance is
attended. It is translated from a work purporting to
narrate various customs in the north of China. " When
the people of Tse are sick, females have recourse to divi-
nation of spirits. The ceremony is performed by a vener-
able sorceress, who, beating an iron drum covered at one
end with leather, and with her garments tucked up,
makes a variety of postures, called dancing to the gods.
But this ceremony, though general, is most frequent in
respectable families, where the younger married women
perform it by observing the following rites : — A wooden
frame bearing flesh and goblets filled with wine are placed
on a table in the hall, together with large candles burning
to make the room as light as day. The female binds up
her short silk petticoat, bends one foot, and makes the
figure of the Shang sheep dance. Two men support her,
taking hold of each arm. She talks incessantly, and
minutely repeats things over and over, as if singing songs,
or offering supplicatory forms of prayers, with different
and irregular intonations. Many drums strike up in the
house, which assail the ears like thunder. The sides of
her mouth open and shut, during this confused noise of
drums, from which the words she utters are not very
distinguishable. Now her head hangs down, and her eyes
roll about obliquely from side to side. While standing
she must be supported under the arms by a person on
either side ; the moment support fails, she falls prostrate
to the ground. Then suddenly stretching forth her neck,
she takes a great leap from the earth. Immediately all

296

NECROMANCY.

the females, petrified with horror, cry out, ' Our ancestor is
come to partake of the feast.' The lights are extinguished ;
the blackness of Hades reigns within and without; the
spectators sob and tremble; no oue presumes to speak;
not a sound is heard during the darkness. In the time
a meal may be eaten, the female, with a stern voice, calls
upon relations and kindred, old and young, to light the
candles; she bends forward to solve doubts, and avert
calamities ; shows all the vessels on the table to be empty
again. Her friends observe her countenance, to see
whether it be smiling or sorrowful, and solemnly propose
a series of questions, to which she returns answers with
the accuracy of an echo."

I am not aware that any terms require explanation,
^ept the words " Shang sheep dance," which may seem
obscure unaccompanied with the following illustration,
from a work on costume. "An ancient belt, made to
resemble a sheep's head, whose flesh, beard, eyes, and
carriage, were said to be like life, was called the Shang
sheep belt, the same character as that used to denote the
celebrated dynasty, which was employed formerly to de-
signate sheep. The sheep, while living, is the emblem of
filial piety, because it kneels down in youth to suck its
dam ; and when dying it is the memorial of disinterested-
ness : the word also means justice or righteousness ; be-
cause in the act of being slain for others it makes no
noise." In time of famine from drought, this animal,
attended with music and dancing, is considered a felicitous
omen. The ancients, who adorned their vessels with its
figure, derived the custom from this idea, which is most
probably the source also of the sanctity ascribed to the
figure of the sheep in the ceremony just described. The

FEMALE CUSTOMS. 297

word FJs which I have translated " sorceress/' represents
the distorted gesticulations of an enchantress, by which
she caused spirits to descend and become visible ; and
although preceded by the word ^ male, it may mean a
wizard, yet the term singly refers only to witch ; while
another symbol, compounded of this and XjP to see, means
a seer ; one who can see spiritual existences, who by
fasting and solemn rites worships spirits; a conjuror, a
wizard.

It would seem, from an additional sentence or two in
the original, that the presiding spirit had power to punish
any infraction of the laws of decorum, by instantly strip-
ping the offender of his clothing. " When the goddess has
discovered the reviler, she immediately points him out,
saying, * You have laughed at and ridiculed me with the
greatest indignity ; I now strip you of your lower gar-
ments/ The offender looks round in amazement at his
nakedness, and forthwith climbs the top of the tree out-
side the door."

Connected with the preceding are the annexed short
stories. " The Tartar ladies, married and single, conduct
themselves with the greatest decorum. If there should be
the smallest suspicion, they are compelled at an appointed
time to ride in solemn state the effigy of a tiger-horse,
with a long military weapon in the hand, and to dance
upon a couch, which is called dancing to the tiger god-
horse. The mien of the tiger is made to appear majestic
and enraged, uttering barbarous sounds, than which the
hot vapour and piercing cold of Kwan-chang's* altar
alone could inspire greater horror."

* In allusion to a punishment in Tartarus, of alternate beat and coM, in
the greatest possible extreme*.

BUDDHIST STORY.

"

" There was a hero came to the window of a cottage to
look in, when suddenly, with a long spear which he
earned, he broke the window, tore his cap, and threw it
inside. The whole family of females, old and young,
crowd together in confusion, like geese, walking and
standing, uncertain what path to take, considering and
thoughtful, without an inattentive person (literally, an
idle bone)." This story was intended to show the dismay
of the ladies, occasioned by their male visitor.

" A certain eloth merchant travelling on the borders of
the district Tsing, unexpectedly approached a temple in a
state of dilapidation. Whilst deeply lamenting its af-
fecting circumstances, a priest came and stood by his
side, and thus accosted him : ' If you this moment exercise
faith, in a short time the mountain you now see will rend
asunder, and discover the splendour of Buddha's counte-
nance.' The stranger, with a noble elevation of mind,
undertook the responsibility. The priest rejoiced, invited
his guest to enter the monastery, and behaved to him
with the greatest politeness. Having introduced his
friend to the different suites of apartments in the upper
and lower stories of the temple, the priest importuned
him for a subscription towards the repairs of the edifice.
The stranger refused, on account of his poverty. The
priest insisted upon his compliance, with menacing lan-
guage and an angry countenance. The stranger was
alarmed, and asked permission to empty his purse, the
entire contents of which he gave to the priest, and was
about to take his departure. The priest stopped him, and
said, ' Though you gave us the whole of your property,
Sir, this is not what we want. If you would in good
1 your mother from purgatory, there is nothing

BUDDHIST STORY. 299

like your preceding her to Hades/ — and immediately
seized a knife. The stranger implored mercy. The priest
for a time would not listen to him ; at length he acceded
to his importunity, and forced him into a dark room,
where he tyrannically imprisoned him. It happened that,
from an embankment raised against the sea, and some
part of the wall having fallen down, that a military officer
passing outside the temple saw at a distance a young girl
in red apparel enter the priest's cottage. His suspicions
were excited; he alighted from his horse, entered the
temple, and searched carefully its front and back apart-
ments, but without finding any thing to justify them, until
he came to a dark chamber, with two folding-doors,
bolted, and strictly guarded, which the priest would not
open, from a pretended fear of fairies and monsters. The
general was enraged, broke down the bars, and went
into the room, where he saw a stranger suspended from a
beam by his neck ; he cut him down, and in a short time
the individual revived. Investigating further into the
circumstances, he examined the priest by torture, to ascer-
tain where the young woman was ; who was found out to
be a crow, which the divine Buddah had manifestly trans-
formed into a young female to attract the general's atten-
tion. The priest was slain, and the stranger's property
restored to him again, who joined in a public subscription
for the repair of the temple, in which a cloud of incense
evermore ascended, and a long course of filial piety, with
uncorrupted generosity, was faithfully preserved. The
original of this statement is fully and accurately known/*
Such tales as these are circulated, partly to ridicule
Buddhism through its agents, and partly to show how
suffering innocence is often rewarded, and its oppressors

SUPERSTITIOUS NOTIONS.

punished, even in this life ; while some countenance is
given to the superstitious notion, that Buddah (Ffih) mani-
fests his benevolence by miraculous interpositions in
favour of the distressed.

The Chinese are excessively addicted to superstitious
practices, which arise from alternately prevailing hopes
and fears, excited by eclipses, comets, meteors, earth-
quakes, inundations, drought, famine, locusts, and other
natural phenomena ; all which arc regarded as Indications
of the displeasure of Heaven, and of the necessity of re-
pentance and reformation. Their early cultivation of
astronomy, without the light of kindred sciences to con-
duct them to logical conclusions, has been the means of
bewildering their minds in the entanglements of astrology,
by the principles of which, in the absence of divine reve-
lation, they interpret every physical phenomenon as a
supernatural token of their own inevitable destiny. Chinese
historians have recorded numerous earthquakes, inunda-
tions of rivers, rushing down of mountains, storms and
tempests of rain and had, and have mentioned rain and
wind appearing to them as blood ; all which were viewed
as portentous omens of national and moral evil, but were
permitted to pass away without any attempt to explore
the physical principles of their phenomena. On one
occasion, the hailstones, which, from the description of
them, must have been of an enormous size, killed those
on whom they fell.

A comet, and a dark spot on the sun, were observed at
the beginning of the fourth century, in two diften ut
reigns ; and about the middle of the ninth century two
falling stars, or meteors, shot across the heavens in direc-
tions by which each frequently intersected the course of

PERIODICAL FBAST0. 301

the other : their appearance, it is said, was similar to that
of threads interwoven, and as large as a bowl.

The Egyptians represent the moon by the head of a
dog, with which this animal, it is said, possesses a certain
sympathy, especially at the time of her conjunction with
the sun. The Chinese attribute an eclipse to the circum-
stance of a dog eating part of the sun or moon ; and from
this superstitious impression, whenever an eclipse takes
place, loud noises are made by the people with gongs,
drums, and other noisy instruments, to frighten away the
supposed monster. The Chinese term for eclipse — " eaten
sun or moon"— evinces the superstitious notions prevalent
respecting the phenomena of the heavens when this term
originated.

Although there is no weekly period of worship known
to the Chinese, they have stated holidays in commemora-
tion of traditional customs, the great changes in nature,
fabled heroes of antiquity, the interment of their dead, in
addition to stated seasons consecrated to the worship of
topical and imaginary divinities, which are of all degrees
of rank, down from the originator of the universe to the
god of the pigstye.

New-year's-day, which is the first day of the first moon
(about the middle of February), is esteemed of much im-
portance with the Chinese as a day of feasting, mutual
congratulations, and worship of the deities— ceremonies
called worshipping the year, for the same term is used to
denote the most solemn act of worship : crowds of persons
repair to the different temples early in the morning, to
present their offerings; and business is suspended for
some time. Persons on this day light a large candle at

PUBLIC FESTIVITIES.

the temple, with the hope, if they succeed in carrying it
home lighted, that they shall have a happy and prosperous
year; and if by any accident they lose the light on the
way, however frequently, they return to the temple and
persevere in lighting it until they finally carry the candle
home burning. Public offices are closed twenty days
before the new year, to admit of suitable preparations for
it, and twenty days after its commencement, that the
prescribed ceremonial may be observed with due solemnity
and etiquette. On the fifteenth of this moon there is the
feast of lanterns — an emulation to excel in the exhibition
of variegated lanterns, which are suspended above the
door of each house, with the inscriptions on them painted
in large characters. This ceremony was instituted during
the Tang dynasty, but was not extensively prevalent until
two or three centuries later. How like the Egyptians'
feast of lights !

There is a season of public festivity, designated " the
introduction of spring," which begins when the sun is in
the fifteenth of Aquarius. Families go to the temple to
worship, and travel into the country for amusement,
during the continuance of the festival, It comprehends
ten days, variously designated according to the following
order : — fowl, dog, pig, sheep, cow or buffalo, horse, man,
grain, hemp, and pea-day. The seventh, or man-day, is
the most important. At this season, an image of the
human form is made of clay at the expense of government,
and called Tae-suy, which is worshipped as the god of
the year, in allusion to the cycle of sixty years employed
by the Chinese in their chronological computations, to-
gether with a buffalo of the same materials, denominated

ated

ORDEALS. 303

" the spring buffalo." On the day preceding the term,
the magistrate of every provincial city, che-foo — the chief
officer of the district, foo — goes out in state to meet
spring, when he offers sacrifice, and makes prostrations to
these two figures. Several children are also dressed out
in the gayest attire by the inhabitants of different streets,
who tax their fancy to emulate each other in splendid
dresses. They are called " spring colours," and are placed
on tables, and carried on the shoulders of persons who
parade the streets with them. The next day, the magis-
trate, already alluded to, goes forth as the priest of spring,
in which capacity he is the greatest personage in the
province, and with his whip in his hand strikes the buffalo
two or three times, in token of commencing the labours
of agriculture. It is then broken in pieces with stones by
the populace, who expect from the circumstance a year
of plenty. The decorated tables, with living figures upon
them, are taken to the various public offices to return
thanks for the silver medals distributed on those occasions.

Ordeals are instituted in China, to prove legitimacy, in
the following manner. Two drops of blood, each from a
father and son, if let fall together into a vessel, will
coalesce — not so with the blood of strangers : and hence
this method is resorted to for the purpose of testing claims
to consanguineous relationship.

The Chinese are greatly addicted to times and seasons;
so much is the commencement of any season honoured, that
some deem it unlucky to offer thanksgivings for recovery
from sickness near the close of the month, and prefer
waiting until the beginning of the next moon, before they
dedicate their pious offerings for convalescence.

-

Numbers, in a superstitious acceptation, are in many
respects the same with the Egyptians and the Chinese.
The monad, or Egyptian unity, amidst much confusion
and obscurity, is considered as the generating cause of
every number ;* a sentiment similar to that of the Chinese,
which ascribes the origin of all things to cumbers.
There appears also to be corresponding agreement be-
tween the numbers two and three, as used for symbolical
representations in China and Egypt. The two supreme
powers emanating from one source, we have already ad-
verted to, as alike in both countries. The number three
derives importance from the three great powers in the
universe, which it describes. The Chinese say numbers
begin at one, are made perfect at three, and terminate at
ten. Three, with the Egyptians, stands for the plural ;
hence, when they would denote the multiplicity of an
object, they repeat the word that stands for it three times.
Many Chinese symbols involve the same principle ; the
following may be adduced as specimens : — three suns to
denote effulgence; three tongues, excessive talking; the
symbol for hair, three times repeated, expresses the fur of
animals, the down of birds, and any thing delicate, soft,
and beautiful. Three forms of the symbol for grass con- '
stitute the generic term for plants, herbs, and trees ; three
trees represent a forest. Many other characters might be
adduced, which derive an intensity of meaning from their
three-fold form. The Egyptians use the symbol three to
denote dumbness, because, if a child does not speak in three
years, it is presumed he will never be able to speak. The
same principle is involved in the Chinese reason for
* Hompollo.Booki.sec.il.

MYSTIC SYMBOLS — LIKES. 306

mourning three years for the death of a parent, because
children are peculiarly helpless for that space of time.

Iu the absence of inspired teaching, which enabled
Hebrew patriarchs and poets correctly to interpret the
economy of nature, the Chinese, on the principle that the
heavens do rule, have elaborated systems of superstition
from the properties and apparent motion of the planets.
Their speculative notions on the origin of the universe,
which gave birth to their astrological and other systems
of divination, occurred, it is said, so early as three thou-
sand years before the Christian era, when Fuh-he drew
eight diagrams to coincide with the marks on the back
of the tortoise. But though these mystic symbols were
discovered so early by this celebrated person, the honour
of analyzing them was reserved for a member of the Sung
dynasty, who introduced the circle,* to which he applied
the terms — " extreme limit ; chaos ; primitive existence ;
unity/'

On the original division of unity, a Kne • — • which
represents it, became two — - and then there existed an
odd and even number ; the even number was Yang, which
denotes male energy or perfection ; the odd number Yin,
female energy or imperfection. These lines, one whole
and the other divided, or an odd and an even number, by
placing on each first a whole and then a divided line,
produce the sse-seang, thus : on the whole line place a
whole line = ; then on the whole line place a divided
line =1= ; next on the divided line place a whole line =r= •
and then on the divided line place a divided line ss t
these are the sze-seang, or four similitudes: — and by
the same rule, placing on each of these first a whole and

• 8m ph« 135.

X

then a divided line, the eight
diagrams are obtained, thus.
In the " Classic of changes,"
from which this figure is taken,
letliod is carried out
to six lines one above another,
and to sixty-four diagrams,
which are represented in a circle
as emblematical of heaven, because heaven, according to
Chinese notions, is round ; and the same number of dia-
grams, so disposed in a square as to make eight every way,
is a similitude of the earth, which, on the principles of the
same philosophy, is an immovable square in the centre
of the universe, around which the heavens constantly
revolve.

Hence changes produced by this system may be carried
on without end, the use of which, the Chinese are
candid enough to acknowledge, is not apparent, except
to show that the doctrine of changes is infinite. The
whole, according lo the standard work* on this subject, ap-
pears to consist in the representation of a geometrical series,
whose constant multiplier is two: as one multiplied by two
produces two, two produces tour, and four produces eight.
The same results, however, are obtained by division ; as
one divided becomes two, two divided become four, four
divided become eight. This representation is made by
lines, to illustrate the manifold changes which occur in
nature and in the affairs of the world ; changes made
known to the diviner when he applies his process of
divination to the linear symbols of his mystic numbers.
The Bgus "fc Jp of which this is a copy, is given

• Yih-king.

■n in

AHD FIGURE — ASTROLOGY. 307

the Yih-king, as a representation of the tortoise, the
upper part descriptive of the head, the lower of the feet
• A It is formed by marks which stand for

«r o the symbols of the universe, so dis-

o \ posed as to make ten every way, thus :

6^ $ nine and one — top and bottom ; two
jfi^ jl and eight — the upper right and lower

■^ «^ left angles ; three and seven — the left

and right sides ; four and six — the upper left and lower
right angles ; while the marks in the centre are descrip-
tive of the five original elements or agencies of the earth
already noticed : — beginning at the bottom and proceed-
ing by the right in the following order : water, fire, metal,
wood, and earth in the centre; which, with the five
planets — namely, the golden star — Venus ; the wood star
— Jupiter; the water star — Mercury; the fire star —
Mars; the earth star — Saturn — constitute the perfect
number ten, which obtained this distinction with the
Chinese, because the chief powers of heaven and earth,
the only correct models of human conduct and pursuits,
are each five in number. This sentiment is carried out
with singular minuteness in all the ramifications of
society ; of whose physical, social, and political systems,
it constitutes an indispensable part. And since divina-
tion, on which we are now entering, exhibits the outward
forms of the pervading influence of ancient superstition,
it may be proper to adduce an illustration or two on each
point.

Astrology, designated " the science of the breath of
the stars/ 9 although prohibited in China before the Chris-
tian sera, is still practised by a class of magicians, who
pretend to exercise this art from observing the halo round

x2

308

THE FIVE TASTES.

the sun, the principles of which involve the assumption
that the destinies of individuals are controlled by
operations of nature, to which certain visible signs, known
only to the initiated, correspond. Moreover, the five
agents represented in a circle, of which earth is the centre,
are said mutually to operate on each other, in an alternate
process of generation and destruction, reproduction and
annihilation, according to their relative position ; a theory
which teaches not only that certain physical properties
evert mutual influence, even where no connection can be
traced, but that the same principles combine together
both the natural and the moral world in the reciprocal
relations of cause and effect ; so that a transgression of
any one of those principles would, either as cause or
effect, indicate a contravention of the laws of nature.
The indissoluble connection of this theory with the medi-
cal art, obliges the physician to understand it before he
can determine the state of his patient's pulse ; since the
five agents are said to influence the viscera of the human
frame — liver, heart, lungs, kidneys, stomach — to which
they correspond in number and the order of their arrange-
ment. A similar connection subsists between the sub-
stances of the materia medica and the same five elements,
under each of which every variety is comprehended. For
example : herbs, classed under the element wood, produce
a beneficial influence on the liver ; substances connected
with fire, or caloric, operate on the heart ; properties of
earth, or soil, affect the spleen ; those which are classed
with metal control the lungs ; whilst the affinities of water
are adapted to the kidneys.

The five tastes, sourness, sweetness, bitterness, acritude,
taltness, have derived their number from the elements,

THE FIVE COLOURS. 309

and are possessed of certain affinities, which are classified
with the viscera in the following way : that is, sourness
with the liver, because it is allied to wood ; sweetness with
the spleen, because it belongs to the earth ; bitterness with
the heart, because it relates to fire ; acritude with the lungs,
because they are united to metal ; and saltness to the
kidneys, because they are connected with water. In like
manner the original colours — green, yellow, carnation,
white, black— are applied to the five elements and to the
human frame for superstitious purposes in the following
order : green to wood, and therefore to the* liver ; yellow
to the earth, and therefore to the spleen ; red to fire, and
therefore to the heart ; white to metal, and therefore to
the lungs ; black to water, and therefore to the kidneys.
These affinities and repulsions, which are recognized by all
writers on Chinese physics, derive their origin, according
to popular belief, from the natural constitution of things.
The exquisite mechanism of the eye, fitted by Infinite
Wisdom to receive correct impressions of external objects,
is in nothing more sensitively displayed than in its per-
ception of colours. For whatever purposes in the natural
world these agreeable diversities were ordained, they are
not only subservient to the gratification of the organs of
sense, but, on the principle that nature is an infallible
guide, are constituted the indexes of certain moral quali-
ties and official distinctions in public society.

Nations both savage and civilixed have alike assumed
specific colours as badges of rank, costume, or hereditary
right ; and if this usage prevails to some extent in climates
least favourable to the development of beautiful colours,
how much more in tropical regions, where external beauty
reigns in the greatest luxuriance throughout the year.

310

l lis EMBLEMATICAL OP F

Since there is but one model for all countries, there must
be a general agreement in the choice of colours, while the
characteristic distinctions of national costume "ill eonaori
in devices derived from the prevailing habits of the people.

Colours in China are emblematical of rank, autln>iitv.
virtues and vices, joys and sorrows. Yellow is the im-
perial colour, assumed only by his majesty and his sods,
or the lineal descendants of his family, who may wear a
golden yellow sash and a yellow bridle. Purple is pre-
scribed, by the laws of the Board of Rites, for grandsons.
Green or blue for the chairs of the princesses. Green is
the colour of the painted board carried before a criminal
going to be executed, on which the authority for his
punishment is inscribed, lilne indicates official rank of
the third or fourth degree. Red is a symbol of virtue,
especially of truth and sincerity; hence, to say a person
has a red heart, means that he is without guile ; this is also
the colour of the first degree of official rank. The emperor
writes his special edicts in vermilion. Proclamations
offering rewards for the apprehension of offenders are
designated " the red flower," because voluntary services
are sometimes rewarded by decorating the head with |
flower of this colour. Slack denotes guilt and vice ;
hence, to say that a man " has a black heart," is a contu-
melious expression for depravity. White, MUBOflgtbfl
ancient Hebrews, is used in mourning, and to denote moral
purity; it also indicates official rank of a lower degree.

The Tartar dynasty has introduced a novelty into the
official costume of the country, by conferring on persons
who have distinguished themselves, peacocks' feathers, of
one, two, or three eyes, and of different colours, according
to their degree of merit, to hang from the top of the cap

tub marinbb's compass. 311

down the back. The Chinese, transferring the notion
which they entertain of man, as a transcript of the
heavens, to the body politic, have bestowed on the six
celebrated Boards of Peking, titles which correspond to
the phraseology of the natural world : thus the members of
the Board of Appointments were called " heaven's officers ;"
of the Board of Revenue, " earth's officers ; w of the Board of
Rites, " spring officers ; w of the Military Board, " summer
officers;" of the Board of Punishments, " autumn officers ;"
of the Board of Works, " winter officers." The number of
these boards was doubtless borrowed from the term " six
points," which expresses the four points of the compass
and the poles of the horizon, and shows that the idea of a
world in miniature prevails with regard to the public con-
stitution of society as well as to the body, which the
Chinese consider as a little universe, over whose heaven,
earth, and four seasons, rulers must be appointed.

The mariner's compass, a sort of connecting link between
the phenomena of the heavens, the regulations of the
earth, and the state of man in his social and public rela-
tions, was derived, according to tradition, from the eight
diagrams of Hwang-te, who invented the chronological
cycle of sixty years. Other and better testimony dates its
origin fifteen hundred years later. It is designated the
wheel which points to the south ; and as it was used first
to discover ways through vast solitudes and crowded
forests, it would soon in the hands of the astrologer and
soothsayer, habituated to observe the heavens, become a
mighty instrument of terror and deception to the unini-
tiated. The top of the figure represents the south, the
bottom of it the north, the left hand indicates the east, the
right hand points to the west ; the upper angle left, the

312

PHYSIOGNOMY.

and the
it giving

the ii it-li

south-east, the lower angle left, the north-east,
corresponding angles, the opposite points. Without
unwarrantable credence to chronological records, the high
antiquity of the Chinese compass may be presumed from
its uses in forests and deserts in the infancy of their ex-
perience, from the sacred character attached to it in a
figurative sense, by commending any useful book as the
compass of the subject to which it refers, and from its
being identified with the first Bystems on record, in
perhaps the oldest written medium in the world, which
still continues to be a living language.

The connection of man with the phenomena of the
heavens, and of the atmosphere generally, together with
the five elements, and the symbols of the chronological
cycle, professedly derived from heaven and earth, supply
abundant materials to the fortune-teller, who pretends to
calculate destinies for no other object than personal
aggrandisement. The five elements are allied to the hands,
the cheeks, the forehead, the chin, and the nose, and to
the five organs of sense, among which the eyebrows are
included for physiognomical purposes, as well as to con-
stitute a standard of beauty. Not only the character of
individuals, but their fortunes, are determined, both limn
the indications which these signs furnish, and from the
natal hour. But what is still more remarkable, good or
bad fortune is professedly known from the structure of
the bones, according to the theory, that some bodies are
constructed of noble, and others of mean bones ; whence
the contemptuous expression in common use, " your whole
body is composed of mean bones."

The following record in the San-kwo* may be adduced

OBOMAKfY. 313

in illustration : Kung-ming, the celebrated general in the
civil wars of the third century, deeply skilled in divination,
to whom we have before alluded, ordered an officer, who
had left the enemy and joined his standard, to be in-
stantly led out to execution. When his friends remon-
strated with him, he replied that he perceived a rebellious
bone on the back part of that person's skull, which
augured a disposition to revolt, and that if he were
not executed, he would hereafter prove their enemy.

From the supposed relation of the elements to the five
points, east, west, north, south, and centre, a distinct
superstition, designated " the wind and water profession,"
has been derived — a sort of geomancy, which, by ascertain*
ing the proper site of a house or tomb, avoids the baleful
influences of air and water in certain devoted localities,
whose position and scenery deteriorate the fortunes of
men. Some Chinese at Malacca, when the Missionaries
were about to build a place of worship just opposite their
temple, begged them to desist, as it would spoil their wind
and water. There is a similar prejudice with regard to
time : when any one thinks of removing, commencing a
journey, or taking any important step in life, persons pro-
fessedly skilled in such mysteries are hired, to predeter-
mine, by a variety of unmeaning ceremonies, what days
are lucky, and what are unlucky.

The principal modes and circumstances of divination are
figure, number, position, and oracular response*, which,
attended with certain rites, constitute symbols of interpre-
tation applicable to all the mysteries of fate. The tortoise,
already alluded to as a consecrated emblem of good
fortune, was employed by the ancients in divination as a
test of the conformity of their conduct and proceedings

«e!«<

314

DIVINATION — PIGLrBE.

with the will of the Supreme Power: thus marriages, it'
happy, must have been previously recorded in heaven ; and
therefore cannot but be verified by the symbol of its will
on earth, in the choice of ministers by the sovereign, and
in the nomination of the successor to the throne, the fact
of which, if ordained of heaven, will be indicated by the
appearance of the prognostic. The process peculiar to
this method of divination consists in scorching the shell of
the tortoise until its veins are seen, from the development
of which the question at issue must be determined. The
symbol of this operation, indicating the longitudinal and
transverse lines on the tortoise shell, was originally drawn
thus \— ; it now signifies, to conjecture, to guess, and
forms one of a class which strikingly illustrates the rela-
tion between some Chinese characters and certain popuhir
superstitions of which they are the indexes.

Divination by numbers is effected by reeds, portions of
bamboo, or the herb she, for which purpose sixty-four slips
of the plant (because this number is the square of the
eight diagrams), of different lengths, are placed iu a case
and drawn out, under certain circumstances previously
agreed upon by the parties, which, being referred to for
decision in doubtful matters, constitutes it pre-eminently
the mode of casting lots. The officers of government
ascertain by this means in what part of the empire they
are to be located. The names of all the provinces are
inscribed on a slip of bamboo, and each officer being ap-
pointed to serve the province whose name be draws, his
own act decides his fortune. So thoroughly is this super-
stition inwrought into the political and social systems of
the Chinese, that although considered by Europeans as
too absurd for yrave refutation, its symbolical nistru-

DIVINATION — NUMBBtt. 315

ment*, nevertheless, betoken practical results, which
involve the present and future destinies of myriads of
human beings. If devout and anxious worshippers pre*
sent themselves in the temples of their respective sects, to
obtain a divine response to their prayers, there can be
no hope of success, except for reasons indicated by these
signs. If the trader requires a licence from the govern-
ment to vend his merchandise, the divination symbol must
constitute his authority. If the lictor is about to punish
a criminal, sentence cannot be legally executed without
the presence of this omen of superstition. It is not, the
reader will perceive, a civil warrant merely, as in European
countries, to secure the ends of justice, but part of a com-
plicated and mysterious plan of spiritual despotism, which
ever hangs in terrorem over its deluded votaries.

The oldest records on divination by numbers are found
in the Y r ih-king, which reduces the subject to four par-
ticulars : instruments, as the sixty-four slips of wood, whose
names vary with the circumstances of its use; efficient
causes, or the spiritual and indivisible energy embodied in
the symbol ; external signs, or the state of the prognostic
on which results chiefly depend ; and ideal representations,
or comparisons between natural objects and occurrences,
lucky or unlucky, in personal experience ; as " the three
stars/' whose felicitous influences are respectively sought,
in " happiness," " official emoluments," and " long life,"
The material universe first displays its objects, and then,
by means of numbers which begin at one, are made perfect
at three, and terminate at ten, consummates its affairs.
The highest point, whether designated fate, source, or
essence, is symbolized by one. The operations of this
mysterious abstraction are personified by two : its lucky

316 DIVINATION INSTRUMENTS.

and unlucky influences are determined by sixty-four, ant!
by sis times sixty-four — numbers which are the abstrac-
tion of obedience to nature, and the substance of her
alternations and changes. It may be dispersed into ten
thousand forms, while it is still combined in one essence.
Without minutely following the writer's mystical c.\]»jsi-
tion of the science, it may be remarked that he alludes to
an influence so subtle, as to traverse every conceivable
spot in the universe, while it statedly occupies the centre
of the human system. Its duration is expressed by the
twinkling of an eye ; its locality is defined by the boundary
which separates motion from rest ; and its power surrounds,
embraces, and preserves all things. It has a vital essence
and an external action embodied in the circulation of the
animal spirits and in the operations of the mind ; while it
is united with heaven and earth in virtue, with the sun
and moon in splendour, with the four seasons in order,
and with demons and gods in good and evil. But after all
these descriptions, and others of a similar nature, which I
have not copied, the writer concludes by saying that such
combinations and permutations have sprung from a name-
less property, the realities of winch the student would do
well to investigate — nay, which he ought to understand.

The follow ing practical directions occur in describing the
process of divination : — In a chosen and purified spot
make a house of reeds, with a southern aspect, in the
centre of which place a couch, five cubits long and three
broad ; cover fifty of the divination plants with red silk,
and having enclosed them in a bag of rushes, place the
bag in a case on the north side of the couch ; set up a
wooden frame on the south of the case, occupying the north
of the two divisions of the couch ; place vases for holding

S

DIYIHATTOK — INSTRUMENTS. 317

incense matches south of the frame work, and a fragrant
vessel on the south of the rase, as a token of the utmost
reverence. Such are the ceremonies to be observed when
this ^ # species of herb is employed ; but when the plant
is used of which this character 4jfl> » symbolical, others
must be added ; such as sprinkling the floor with water,
sweeping it and taking up the dust, placing an inkstone,
a pencil in water, and a cake of ink, on a yellow board
east of the censer. Still further to the east, the diviner,
whose passions have been duly regulated by previous
fasting and abstinence from bodily enjoyments, stands
with washen hands, facing the north and clothed in
pure garments, burning incense with the most profound
reverence.

In these last-mentioned rites there is something not
greatly dissimilar to the vision of Ezekiel,t in which the
prophet saw " a man clothed with linen, and having a
writer's inkhorn on his loins, go with other persons of
the vision, and stand beside the braaen altar/ 9 The
Hebrew word translated " inkhorn, not only denotes a
case for instrument* of writing, which are similar to the
Chinese stone and pencil and ink, as related above, but
appears to be derived from a word signifying to divine,
which occurs in other parts of Holy Writ, with special
reference both to the result of the commission, and the
process by which it was to be fulfilled. The Hebrew
word rendered $eribe 9 from " to number," not only points
out the person who fulfils the duties of this ofice, but
answera to the diviner, who, standing clothed in appropriate
vestments near the altar of incense, carefully examines the

• Ske, is the bum of this and the following chancier,
f battel Is. f .

318

DlVlJfATIOX — HY

prognostics, and reports the nature of his observations to
his waiting disciples- In like manner, the person in Ezekiel's
vision stood beside the brazen altar in his sacred apparel,
bearing the instruments of his official authority, as if he
were the enumerator as well as the scribe. The only me-
thod, as it appears to me, of accounting for such coinci-
dences, is that of ascribing the detail in both cases to an
Egyptian origin.

With regard to our next point, tlirhitttio?i by position,
the ancient orientals divined by the manner in which the
instruments they employed fell to the ground, as in the
use of arrows — which, as Gibbon remarks, was" an ancient
and famous mode of divination all over the East," — on
which names were sometimes inscribed, when they were
all mixed in a quiver, to be drawn out, and the thing de-
termined according to the name drawn, similar to th»
Chinese method of drawing with reeds already alluded to ;
but what especially claims our attention is their being
shot from a bow, that conclusions may be drawn from
their flight, or their being cast up into the air, and the
event decided according to their position on falling to the
ground. The Chinese modes resemble some of these.
One consists in throwing three copper coins from a tor-
toise-shell box, and inferring from their fail whether the
fortune of the inquirer will be good or bad. In general,
one person presides over the ceremony ; sometimes, how-
several are employed, when, if there be a difference
of opinion, that of the majority is considered as the true
interpretation. Another method, frequently adopted m
temples, is by two pieces of wood or bamboo, made round
and in the form of a crescent ; probably in allusion to the
new moon, whose figure it resembles, divided lengthwise

DREAMS, AND DEPARTED SHADES. 319

into two equal parts, to which there is both a round and a
flat surface. The individual who performs the ceremony
kneels on the ground, and in that posture throws these
two pieces up into the air, the position of which, when
fallen to the earth, determines his fortune. If both the
flat surfaces lie uppermost, they are called by the name
of the male energy in nature, to which we have frequently
referred, or " the cup of expectation," and are deemed in*
felicitous ; if both the round surfaces are turned upwards,
they are named after the female power, or styled " the cup
of prostration,*' and indicate peace and rest ; but if the
round surface of one and the flat side of the other lie
upwards, the omen is called " the holy sage's cup," and is
considered perfectly felicitous.

Great attention is paid to dreams by the Chinese, which
they profess to interpret, from their connection with astro-
logy, agreeably to the following passage : — " By the sun,
moon, stars, and hours, divine the felicitous or infelicitous
import of the six dreams, which are — a correct dream, an
alarming dream, a thinking dream, one that resembles
rational thoughts, a waking dream, a joyful dream, and
a fearful or perturbed dream. Those dreams, however,
which come under the rules of divination, are reduced to
three classes : such as arise from some apparent cause,
are strange and monstrous, and beyond all that had
been anticipated.

That a people like the Chinese, who are avowedly in close
intercourse with the shades or manes of deceased human
beings, should refer the solution of their doubts to de-
parted sages, and other deified mortals, affords no cause
for surprise. One method of seeking supernatural counsel
is, to suspend over a quantity of sand a pencil or reed,

which, under the guidance of some invisible being, forms
symbols containing answers to questions proposed by the
applicant. The government, however, seriously discou-
rage the practice. Not many years ago, a deposed civilum
was condemned to death for publishing an answer alleged
to have been received in tins way from Confucius, the
purport of which was, that the emperor of China, discon-
tinuing his annual visit to the tombs of his ancestors,
should perform the necessary ceremonies of worship by
deputy ; and that a deified warrior of the Han dynasty,
who is generally worshipped by the military, and highly
honoured by the reigning family, should be deprived of
the title of emperor : sentiments which were declared to in-
dicate the most daring impiety. Such superstitions are based
on the principle that man, after death, not only retains
his intellectual faculties in fall consciousness, but that Iw
is able to foretel events which may occur in all fututv
time among the inhabitants of the present world ; but
while numerous idolatrous practices among the heathen
have no consistency, except on the belief of man's im-
mortality, it is a theory which produces no beneficial
results even of a moral character.

The marriage ooeenant has ever been considered as
most important all over the East, the rites of which have
from the earliest times been celebrated with every demon-
stration of joy and splendour befitting the rank of the
parties. The peculiar reserve of the sexes towards each
Other, which so strikingly characterizes oriental man-
ners, has originated usages of a description totally alien
from those of Europe. The influence of climate is doubt-
less the principal source of early marriages. But many
customs, independently of physical causes, are peculiar

THE RITE OF MARRIAGE. 321

to the quarter of the globe which the human population
first occupied. So faithfully and continuously have re-
mote customs been handed down, that, by comparing the
oldest records in the world with practices observed at
this day, we not only find the truth of sacred history
corroborated, but seem borne backwards to the very
period in which the patriarchs and fathers of our race
existed. What was the peculiar form of the ceremonial
in the primitive ages of the world does not appear, except
in the congregation of friends at the nuptial feast ; but if
there were any other, it was doubtless of the simplest and
most expressive kind. The parents of the parties, after
their son had made his choice, always formed the con-
tract ; and if we, on some points, except the Hebrews,
we are struck with the entire surrender by children of
their future destiny, with whatever predilection they might
have, to the guidance of parental judgment. Though sons
and daughters of respectable families in the West usually
defer to parental authority, still, except in royal marriages,
nothing occurs similar to the constant practice in the
East of parties seeing each other for the first time on the
evening of their nuptials. This infelicitous arrangement
is based on the absurd custom of prohibiting interviews
between the sexes before marriage. In China, both parties
are usually very young, whose parents or guardians choose
their companion for them, yet not without some regard
to their will. A go-between, who may be of either sex,
is essential to the formation of the marriage union. The
title and office are derived from a personage called " the
moonlight old gentleman,'* who was seen by an aspirant
to the conjugal relation reading the marriage book of fate
by moonlight, and bending over a bag in which were the

Sll THE HITK OF MARRIAGE.

red strings to bind together the feet of man and wife ; — a
bond, he said, which could not be severed though th>
individuals lived ever so widely apart, and the familie*
cherished against each other ever so desperate an enmity;
hence the expression "silken strings," which bind the
nuptial cups, and perhaps also the origin of the proverb,
that "whether a wife shall be a treasure, and children a
source of emolument, is previously fixed by fate."

After the parents of a young man have resolved to
procure a wife for him, the first person employed U the
diviner, who, having ascertained the name of the young
lady, the day and hour of her birth, from the go-between,
by whom she is seen and described to the youth's friends,
proceeds on the principles of his art — astrology, tie flight
of birds, or some other natural phenomenon — to deter-
mine whether the consummation of such a marriage would
prove felicitous. If it would, the go-between is sent by
the friends of the youth to announce the joyful tidiogs to
the lady's parents, and request them to give a written
promise of marriage, the reception of which is acknow-
ledged by costly gifts of silk, silver, gold, sheep, wine,
fruit, and other presents, according to his circumstance*,
which are made by the young man to the maiden to ratify
the espousals. The next step in the process requires that
a messenger be sent to the parents of the bride elect to
ask them to fix a day for the solemnization of the mar*
riage ; after which the preparatory ceremonies are con-
cluded by the bridegroom's going out in the evening to
meet his bride. But although the preliminary arrange-
ments are thus extended to six divisions, these are prac-
tically comprehended in three : writing the marriage
settlement, sending the previous presents, and nolem-

iage

leru-

TUB HITS OF MARRIAGE. 323

nizing the nuptials : this is the Chinese ceremony. The
Tartar ceremony differs from it, in that a matron is sent
from the bridegroom with a pin of gold, silver, wood, or
copper, to braid the young lady's hair, which is considered
as fixing the espousals.

The preliminary customs in use with Chinese youth are,
to wear a scarlet scarf in token of joy, together with a
bonnet, formally placed on the head by bis father, and
to take another name, expressed by j|2, which, singularly
enough, denotes the symbols of the language, literature,
to lore, to cherish, and to promise a lady in marriage.
The young Chinese female changes the mode of braiding
her hair, assisted by her youthful friends, who share her
face, and attend to other ceremonies, one of which is to
sit and weep with her until the day that she bares the
parental abode to serve a husband. On the day of
marriage, relatives and friends send their congratulations
and good wishes, accompanied with presents ; some suit-
able to the toilette, others of a more important character,
among which are tablets bearing felicitous inscriptions,
and geese. Wild geese have been recognized from the
most ancient times in China as an emblem of conjugal
harmony, by reason of their proceeding in company, north
or south, agreeably to the dictates of nature ; that is, in
compliance with the requirements of the season.

Domestic geese are honoured as an emblem of fidelity,
which is symbolized by a goose made of wood or tin, and
carried before the marriage procession, consisting of the
bridegroom and his friends and attendants, who in the
evening of the marriage day go with music, lanterns, an
ornamented chair, and an artificial pavilion, to the bride's
habitation to fetch her home to the abode of her husband.

y2

324 THE KITE OF MARK I A HE.

When she arrives at the gate, various instruments o
begin to play, and the bride's attendants carry
their shoulders over a pan of coals placed within the
door into her chamber. Afterwards she and her husband,
seated in the sleeping apartment, which is designated the
hall of songs, worship the matrimonial goose, where a
table is prepared with food and wine, at which the bride
and bridegroom, sitting alone, and eating together For the
first and last time of their lives, proceed to perform the
ceremony of joining cups, by drinking together a little of
" the wine of the decorated candle :" the bridegroom
drinks a small quantity of it; and the bride places the
cup to her lips, while she covers her face with one hand,
under the pretence of drinking; this act being considered
as sealing the marriage covenant, is an indispensable
part of the ceremony.

There are various other ceremonies, very trivial in them-
selves, but of vast importance in the estimation of the
Chinese to the future well-being of the newly-married
couple. A matron who has reared a numerous family
must prepare the sleeping-room, and pronounce a bene-
diction on the parties. The day after the marriage the
husband and wife enter the hall to worship the family
deities, and pay their respects to their parents and other
relatives, but retire to their chamber to receive the visits
of their young friends from without, who make it a season
of mirth, and enjoy themselves by various jokes and
humorous remarks on the bride and bridegroom, desig-
nated attacks upon them. On the third day, the female
visits her parents in a decorated chair prepared by her
husband, who gives an entertainment on the occasion.
The nuptial ceremonies are kept up for a month, n

occasion.

CUSTOMS OF TUB MALAYS. 325

end of which the bride's parents send her a head-dress,
and provide a feast for their son and daughter, which
concludes the whole series of ceremonial rites.

The ceremony of sealing the marriage bond in other
parts of the East, though it differs in some of its details,
is substantially the same as that of the Chinese. I
mention one that I witnessed among the Malays, in the
superior class of society, who made the most costly pre-
parations for the celebration of their nuptials, and
scrupulously observed all the forms incumbent on their
rank. There were three days of feasting and preliminary
arrangements, during which the bride was visited by her
friends, and adorned by her attendants with jewels, rai-
ment, and perfumes, supposed most likely to render her
acceptable to the bridegroom ; on the evening of the third
day from the commencement of these ceremonies, when
the bride was shut up in her own apartment with her
female friends, the bridegroom came to the door, and
demanded admission. A voice from within asked who
was there ? and on what errand the visitor had come ?
questions which the bridegroom answered by calling
aloud his name, and demanding the young lady within to
be given to him for his wife. In reply he was required
to state what present he proposed to make if the doors
were opened ? A diamond of considerable value was
promised. The doors were immediately thrown open, and
the husband, on presenting the precious stone, was ad-
mitted to the presence of his bride, who accompanied him
to the nuptial feast spread upon a mat on the floor, on
which they both sat down to eat. It was at this feast,
prepared in the evening, and consisting of all the deli-

THE KITE OF MARRIAl

m

cacies afforded by the climate and season, with a. large
bowl of rice in the centre, that the ratification of the
marriage agreement took place, which in its essential
point is the same as among the Chinese ; and was, in all
probability, the primitive custom of sanctioning marriage.
It is Impossible, in referring to these observances, not
to be struck with the illustrations they afford of customs
and expressions in the Sacred Scriptures, such as decking
the bed of the bride of Solomon, anointing the person of
the bride with perfumes and myrrh ; the great gaiety and
festivities of the party kept up for a considerable period,
according to the rank of the individuals, and various
other points of coincidence. A European feels forcibly
the fatigue and weariness occasioned by the excessively
numerous forms through which they had gone ; at some of
which, on the occasion alluded to (though intended only
for ladies), I was present, through the kind influence of
the resident's lady.

It is customary in China for sons after their marriage
to live in their father's bouse with their wives and
families. The two words in ordinary use to denote
marriage are composed of the characters which signify
" maiden and dusk," because the bridegroom goes,
according to ancient usage, in the evening to receive his
bride ; and of " maiden and cause," because the bride-
groom's coming in the evening is the cause of the bride's
going to her husband's house — that is, his father's. This
custom is sometimes the source of inconveniently large
households, which has given rise to singular practices,
and to peculiarities in the code of ethics and ceremonies ;
such as that a brother and sister-in-law should not be

SINGULA* CHIVBSB CUSTOMS. 327

permitted to converse together, an ancient rule which
would probably never have been adopted had the parties
occupied separate abodes.

Poor parents who seek a wife for their sons, in addition
Q^the ordinary motive of transmitting the family name to
posterity, frequently calculate on the services of their
daughter-in-law during their declining years and advanc-
ing infirmities ; for as 9 on the same principle, their own
daughters, immediately on their marriage, are located in
other families, so they themselves would be destitute of
female aid if not provided for by this means. The same
custom has also given rise, among some rich families in
the north of China, desirous of dispensing with it, to a
practice as remote from true Chinese usage as it is
opposed to European notions of delicacy and propriety :
it is that of advertising for a husband for their daughter;
and, curious enough, to set the matter beyond all doubt,
and to show, as the circumstance undoubtedly does, that
this is by no means an uncommon case among the
wealthier classes of the community, though said to be
confined to the north, a peculiar character 42 is appro-
priated to this special purpose. The practice may perhaps
chiefly refer to cases of an only daughter for whom a very
tender affection subsists, or one whom, on other grounds,
her parents wish to retain in the domestic circle ; and
therefore, while true to the Chinese principle of encourag-
ing the multiplication of the species, and planting the
heads of future generations beneath the parental roof,
these ancient and venerated forms are sought to be
accomplished without the usual sacrifices.

It is the usage in China not for ladies to bring dowries
to their husbands, but for the husbands to pay an equiva-

3'28 THE RITE OP MARKIAQK.

lent to the wife's parents for her services, which are now
to be transferred to her husband's relatives; hence the
proverb, " If you can obtain a virtuous son-in-iaw, do not
exact large sums of money." It is as obvious from this
usage, as from the necessity of advertisement, that a son-
in-law of equal rank would not readily be obtained on
these conditions, while parents, to secure their objects,
wish to surrender as little as possible of what is due to
their station ; so that, perchance, by advertising they
might meet with an orphan youth who would not object
to an asylum with his wife's friends. In matrimonial
alliances great regard is had to the probability of har-
mony and peace between the two families ; and care is
taken to adjust the wealth of one to the literature of the
other. A person possessed of literary fame may reason-
ably expect to obtain an alliance with a family distin-
guished for its respectability and wealth. But in such
cases, on the old principle of a daughter-in-law living with
her husband's parents, an incongruous elevation of a sou
to a union with a lady of superior manners necessarily
brings his wife down to a level with the habits of his own
family, perhaps poor and mean in its domestic establish-
ment, though he himself may be distinguished by literary
honours. Inconveniences arise from such inharmonious
combinations, some of which are exemplified in the fol-
lowing story translated from a Chinese author.

" Chin-seih-kew, an inhabitant of Pe, was a son of the
most celebrated person in the city, insomuch that one
of its richest families looked up to his fame and hoped to
form a matrimonial alliance with him. Chin had ac-
quired literary honours, his ancestors had for many years
been grave, studious scholars, who had travelled to im-

CHINESE STOKY. 329

prove their learning, without any occurrence to cast a
shadow over their good fame. Having changed his views
(that is, from the scholastic to the domestic life), he met
with a young lady who was filially pious and modest,
whom he espoused for the purpose of securing posterity.
Her nuptial presents and offerings were splendid in the
extreme, and the attendants and horses very numerous,
on account of which there was the more indignation at
Seih-kew's poverty, and her father resolved to break off
the negotiation; a resolution, however, to which his
daughter would not accede. He was enraged, clothed
her in the meanest apparel, and sent her home to her
husband. Seih-kew never had a fire lighted, nor was her
father very compassionate. One day, however, he sent
an old domestic with a tray of provisions for his daughter.
The female entering the door went up to the mother and
said, ' My master has sent me to see whether the young
ludy be not hungered to death.' The girl was afraid, the
mother was ashamed, and forced a laugh to conceal her
embarrassment. The young lady selected from the dish
some of the viands, and was about to place them
before the mother; the servant stopped her, and said,
4 It is improper. You yourself, a young lady, having
entered the family of a stranger, are you about to ex-
change for a cup of warm or cold water our family's sub*
stance, to give it to an old woman without respectability
or taste?' The mother was highly indignant, as her
altered voice and countenance exemplified ; while the
servant would not be scolded with impunity. A mutual
attack commenced, which caused such confusion and
clamour as to attract Chin-kew's attention, who imme-
diately came in to ascertain the cause of iL The result

330

HE RITE OP MARRIAGE.

was, he fell into a great rage, seized the old woman by the
hair, flapped her face, and kicked her out of doors.

" The next day the father of the bride went to fetch his
daughter home, who was unwilling to return with him.
He came again on the day following with a retinue of
attendants, who threatened by their vocife rations to attack
the establishment. The daughter took leave of her
mother-in-law, by her own advice, ascended the chariot,
and returned home with her father. Some days after, a
messenger came imperiously to demand the marriage
agreement, which the husband at the command of his
mother gave up. While Chiu-kew and his mother were
looking forward to the father's return with maps of dif-
ferent provinces which he was then visiting in pursuance
of his literary duties, the family of the bride's father were
entertaining a friend from Se-gan,* who affirmed that he
had been dead some time." This news, on reaching the
family of the deceased, seems to have allayed for a season
the domestic bruils created by the untoward marriage ;
inasmuch as " the son was immediately despatched in
search of his father's bones, that they might be suitably
interred or kept in some safe deposit."

From this story, and the provision made by the laws
against the practice, it would seem as though it were no
uncommon occurrence in domestic feuds for the females
to come to blows. Severe punishment is decreed against
a woman who shall strike or maltreat her husband ; but
the husband's beating the wife, provided he does not maim
or seriously injure her, is only to be considered in the light
of wholesome discipline, of which the law takes no cogni-
zance. The disadvantages under which the female

• The capital of tint yrtytiact of Sbeo-i

I

PEMALK DBGBADATIOM. 331

comparison of the male, is placed by the laws of China,
are seen in this,— that the same offence, committed with
impunity by a man against his wife, would be punished most
severely in the wife against her husband. Much has been
said by foreigners about the polygamy of the Chinese ;
but even bigamy is not allowed by the law, which peremp-
torily decides that one wife only should be allowed, and
that other females introduced are to be considered as con-
cubines ; nor would moral writers sanction a female of this
latter class in the domestic establishment of a married man
before his wife had attained the age of forty, without
bearing children, and then only for the sake of a family,
which it is presumed he would not otherwise have. From
the simple narrative of the marriage ceremony, it will be
seen to what degrading treatment women are subjected.
The sex labours under similar disadvantages throughout
the whole of its future career. The birth of a son is a
source of gladness and delight, which excites the kindliest
feelings of the husband towards his wife; that of a
daughter, one of mingled disappointment and sorrow, not
merely because hopes have been blighted, but because it
is looked upon by the father as a calamitous occurrence,
which is often a source of harsh treatment of the mother.
The husband's relatives, too, may increase her troubles and
greatly annoy her without any resource, except in the
degrees of merit awarded to her in the scale of virtues by
moral philosophers, who carefully estimate the value of
patient forbearance under such circumstances of repeated
provocation. Every thing on her part must be conducted
with becoming gravity and humility, especially towards
her husband, whatever may be his conduct to her. It
was the ancient custom for a woman, three months pro-

332

THE KITE ul' MAKKIAUIi.

vious to marriage, to be conducted to an altar dedicated
to deceased ancestors, that she might be taught the vtrluex
of a wife, which consist of chastity and obedience ; the
words of a wife, which should be of a soothing nature; the
manners of a wife, which should be mild and amiable ; and
the duties of a wife, which then consisted chiefly in pre-
paring silk and flax: the ceremony was concluded with
sacrifices of fish and water-plants, which were oflered as
pledges of submission to her husband. Female infanti-
cide, though denied by European writers, is a crime which
certainly exists to a great extent, and arises out of the
general degradation of the sex. Express reference is made
to the fact in the writings of moralists ; its existence is
proved by the circumstance, that laws are specially framed
to restrain the evil, which would hardly be the case if
there were no such crime, and from the fact that some
authors refer to its prevalence without any emotion of
horror at so atrocious a deed. It being the custom of
Chinese females, instead of the usual mode of accouche-
ment, to be delivered while standing near a tub into which
the child falls, it is peculiarly favourable to the extinction
of the infant's life, under the pretext of performing the
necessary ablutions. Perhaps it will be the most satis-
factory to refer to principles the reverse of those generally
prevalent in China, in favour of sparing the lives of infant
females, as they are expounded in an essay against drown-
ing daughters; the very title of which not only shows that
the crime is punished, but also implies the usual mode
adopted in executing it. Sometimes, indeed, they may be
exposed in more retired localities on the banks of a river ;
but this will not take place in crowded districts, or in the
neighbourhood of populous towns, much less can they be

FBMALB INFANTICIDE. 333

expected to be seen on the great rivers or canals — the
common medium of traffic throughout the empire. The
remark, therefore, of some members of European embassies,
that they had travelled through a great part of China, and
had not seen an exposed infant, cannot weigh much
against the express authority of native writers, and what
is implied in the ancient and modern usage of treating the
woman as scarcely responsible. So inconsistent are the
sentiments of the Chinese on this subject, that in an
ancient ode which represents, by contrast with the intel-
ligence and rank of a boy, the degraded state of a girl,
she is said to be destitute alike of evil and good ; and the
reason of the sentiment is explained to be, " that slavish
submission being her highest praise, neither virtue nor vice
can be attributed to her/' The advices of moral writers,
and the subjects of authors who record domestic manners,
unfold fearful tales on the morality of families. No right-
minded person would wish to attribute imaginary crimes
to the Chinese ; nor does it evince either wisdom or bene-
volence to ascribe virtues where truth requires that vices
alone should be stated. Every one conversant with the
detail of practices at home by lighter writers, who has also
had the advantage of inspecting private manners, will be
prepared, notwithstanding moral theories, to believe that
crimes of the most flagrant character are perpetrated.
What the state of such families may be, in which almost
every vice noticed in the Scriptures is practised in detail,
happily cannot even be conjectured by Europeans, but the
aggregate of its misery may be considered as inconceivably
appalling. Moral writers argue in favour of sparing
infanta, that as the females who are now wives and mothers
have been indebted for their life to the daughters of men,

334 THB RITE OF MARRIAGE.

and are themselves daughters, without which there could
be no mothers, it is peculiarly incumbent on them to spare
their female children; especially as brutes, wild and
domestic, care for and love their young ones.

It may seem surprising that with all the additional toils
and privations of the married life in China, it should be so
readily and generally preferred; and this feeling, which per-
vades all classes, is looked upon as honourable in all.
Nay, so strongly is it characteristic of the nation, that the
laws of the empire, on the principle that it is a boon, pro-
vide a punishment for the master of a slave who shall
neglect to procure her a husband at the proper time if she
desires one; on the other hand, if a daughter, from
attachment to her parents, voluntarily chooses celibacy, to
serve them as long as they live, the merit of such conduct
is considered by moral writers to be of the highest kind .-
similar conduct in a female slave attached to her master
is also highly honoured : but such acts must be uncon-
trolled by superior authority.

336

SECTION VII.

EDUCATION— LITEEATUEB — MEDICINE — EOT A NT — NATUEAL ■ItTOEY—

CONCLUDING EEMAEKE.

Education — the next topic which engages our attention
in discussing the state of the Chinese — is a subject of
great moment in the arrangements of the supreme govern-
ment, who act on the principle that national rule can be
safely based only on correct moral sentiments. To illus-
trate their sense of its importance, youth are early im-
bued with various principles inculcated in the sacred
classics, consisting of the works of Confucius, Menciua,
and other revered authorities, among which the holy edict
of a late emperor on filial duty, paraphrased by an officer
of rank, and a small treatise* on subjects suited to youth,
are highly valued. The following sentence from the tract
for youth forms the ground-work of Chinese ethics:
"In ancient times children were taught to sprinkle water
on the floor and sweep it, to answer properly when called,
to enter and retire according to due forms, to love their
parents, reverence their superiors, honour their teac h e r s,
and associate with good people; all which are funda-
mental principles in promoting personal virtue, regulating
families, ruling an empire, and subjugating the world/ 9
Education appears to have been greatly esteemed in high
antiquity, since a chapter of a work on rites and cere-

• Ncaou-beu, letroiaf far youik.

336

EDUCATION.

monies, written five hundred years anterior to the Christian
sera, speaks of the (indent mode of learning, which or-
dained that a few families should unite to have a school-
room by the side of the gate ; and that a neighbourhood,
a village, a nation, and principality, should each have
institutions for learning, varying in extent and importance
according to the necessities of the district. Children,
agreeably to the primitive custom, should be taught as
soon as they can eat and speak ; and as they are neces-
sarily without judgment and experience, maxims and
essentials should daily be laid before their eyes, occupy
their ears, and fill their minds, The avowed object of the
sages in teaching children so early, is to restrain their
propensity to dissipation, and cherish benevolent dispo-
sitions. Moral virtue, according to their theory, is indeed
the ultimate end of all instruction ; while propriety of
behaviour, music, archery, the art of driving a chariot,
writing, and arithmetic, are considered as the external
ornaments of an educated mind, and as comprehending
the fine arts, the last of which should be taught at six
years of age. There are no respectable public academies
for the middle ranks of society similar to the higher
schools of European nations ; but as a substitute, the
wealthier classes of the Chinese employ private tutors in
their families for their children and other relatives. The
only public institutions in China, for instructing youth, are
the common district schools, at which fees and entrance
money are paid, and the collegiate establishments of the
province.

The mode of teaching boys in the common schools, is
to begin with a small work called the "Classic of Three
Characters," which they commit to memory, and having

SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 337

gone through it two or three times for the sake of
perfecting themselves in the sounds of the characters,
they then proceed to the " four books/' with a comment,
the text of which they, in like manner, learn memoriter.
It is only books on moral subjects that are taught in the
seats of learning; and these not only have nothing in
them tending, in the slightest degree, to corrupt the
minds or morals of youth, but, on the contrary, as will
be seen by reference to the philosophy of Confucius, in-
sist on every thing which human authority can command
to evince filial reverence, fraternal affection, submission to
superiors, and obedience to the laws. Beyond, however,
the unvarying and uninteresting course prescribed by
Confucius, and two or three of his most distinguished
disciples in their sententious ethics, there is nothing cal-
culated to expand the mind, or attract the finer feelings
of the heart ; and yet learning is defined to be " a new
perception," " the awakening of the mind to comprehend
new objects."

In a treatise designated " An entire collection of Family
Jewels," a hundred rules are laid down for the regulation
of a school, which chiefly refer to the conduct of the
scholars, who, on entering school in the morning, and
leaving it in the evening, are ordered to bow first to the
image of Confucius, and then to the master. When they
return home, they are to bow, to the household gods, to
the tablets of ancestors, to parents and relatives, and to
the guests of the family who may happen to be present,
to whom they must also utter a complimentary saluta-
tion. But although the majority of the rules relate to
the behaviour of pupils during school hours, and at home,
there are some that require them to pay great attention,

z

to understand clearly the sense of the authors read, to
know all the tones and accents, and changes of significa-
tion of which a character is susceptible, from its relative
position ; and others that great care be taken to make a
practical application of what is learned. An ode, or a
selection from history, must be recited before the breaking
up of the school in the evening, and such a piece be chosen
as will be most likely to affect the feelings, and produce a
salutary impression on the mind. In the winter, boys
are to study at home by the aid of a lamp ; and, though
allowed relaxation during the hot months of summer, they
must resume their reading again in autumn, when the
weather becomes cool. Gravity of deportment, a tranquil
and easy manner, self-command, a plain and simple dress,
and correct speech, are strongly recommended; while the
most distant approach to low language is peremptorily
forbidden. Rules for sitting, standing, walking, talking,
and bowing, are laid down, with the greatest precision.
Scholars are prohibited from gambling, dice, cards, dn_--~,
footballs, Hying kites, shuttlecock, playing on wind in-
struments, training birds, beasts, fishes, or insects, all
which amusements, it is said, dissipate the mind and
debase the heart. The eye ought especially to be re-
strained from the sight of obscene stories, impure plays,
novels, and indelicate songs. Eating and drinking are to
be held in due subordination to moral science, on the
maxims of Confucius, " the good man does not eat to
satiety, and the student of moral philosophy ought not
to be ashamed of bad food and bad clothes."

Obedience to the laws of the school and success in
learning are rewarded by the praises of the master, and
gifts of pencils and ink. The disobedient and lazy, who

DISTRICT SCHOOLS. 339

neither write well nor learn their lessons accurately, are
to be punished ; first of all by being made to kneel down
at their seats during the time a stick of incense is
burning ; then, if this private discipline does not reform
them, they must be publicly disgraced, by being brought
to kneel down at the door of the school ; and finally, if
that should fail, they must be flogged. The truth is, the
discipline of the master is very severe, as fiill authority to
punish is ceded to him by the boy's parents, with the only
reserve that he shall not be maimed, or essentially in-
jured. It is enjoined on schoolmasters, that they sedu-
lously discharge their duties, and devote their whole time
to their pupils, if they would secure the respect due to
their station. In this system the total want of discipline
suited to improve the mental faculties, is lamentably
obvious ; and still it is surprising what attention is paid
to etiquette, and the formation of the moral powers
according to the mould prepared for them in antiquity.
Were the same degree of attention devoted to the culti-
vation of useful branches of science, what prodigious re-
sult* would accrue to so numerous a people, whose minds
would then soon become, as they express the idea, " satu-
rated with useful knowledge."

The national district schools, intended for graduates of
the lowest raiik, # are so ill conducted, that until the
period of public examination arrives they are seldom or
never attended. Public examinations, preparatory to the
attainment of degrees, were instituted during the dynasty
Tang, for the purpose of selecting persons to fill the
offices of government, the principle of which, with slight
modification, continues to the present day. It is not the

»TIm«v.

z 2

340 RESTRICTIONS ON THE PRESS,

object of the government to create classes of learned men
who shall enlarge the boundaries of human knowledge,
and, consequently, extend the empire of mind ; but only
to impart the few general principles and maxims already
possessed to talented men who will faithfully employ
them in ruling the mass of the people, according; to the
favourite adage, " the man who seeks extensive learning
must study ancient principles." To this end the govern-
ment prescribes what books are to be studied, which con-
sist only of those friendly to despotic principles ; forbids
the reading and writing of all others supposed to be
adverse to its rights; and disallows all innovations but
such as originate with itself, which being of imperceptible
progress, and confined to the modification of a few
elementary moral truths propagated by the ancients,
discoveries in science and increase of useful knowledge
are forcibly obstructed; and hence an entire stagnation
of mental power, otherwise sufficient to have created
incalculable resources of improvement, must continue to
curse the largest and fairest portion of the globe, until
either a revolution takes place in the government, or,
despite its opposition, Christian principles in their primi-
tive purity, and the latest improvements in science and
literature, are introduced from without. There is in
the Morrison Library, University College, an index ex-
purgatoritis, containing a list of books suitable to be read,
beyond which the subjects of his imperial majesty roust
not presume to pry. The obscene character of a large
number of printed works in Chinese is no doubt suffi-
ciently flagrant to awaken the paternal sympathies of the
august parent on behalf of so very numerous a progeny,
and may afford a decent pretext, under the sheltei of mJ

LITERARY EXAMINATION!. 341

for Confucian philosophy, to restrict the liberty of the
press.

The national literary examination of those who have
attained the lowest degree, takes place in each district
once in three years, and is conducted by its own magis-
trates and literati in the eighth month of the first, fourth,
seventh, and ninth of every twelve years. The general
examination of recommended persons, those of the second
degree from every province of the empire, must take
place at Peking on the fifth and eleventh, the second and
eighth of every twelve years. All the candidates must
enter the court yard to have their names enrolled in the
list on the day preceding the examination, and remain
until the day after it is over, so that they have to pass
two nights without regular rest or food ; and when death
occurs, which is not infrequent, the body must be con-
veyed out of the area through a hole dug for the purpose
in the wall, to avoid the infelicity of defiling the imperial
gateway with a corpse. None are admitted as candidates
for this degree but those who have attained the first,
which is conferred at the district college by the resident
provincial principal. The triennial examinations of whole
provinces are conducted by two imperial commissioners
sent for the express purpose from court. There are two
other degrees, the Tsin-sze and Han-lin, which are con-
ferred in the capital, the last in the presence of the
emperor. The prize essays of these examinations, to-
gether with letters addressed to celebrated persons, con-
stitute a large portion of the literature of China, and are
distinguished into essay* in prose, and poetical c ompo m
lions, on political or moral subjects. The first s p ecie s,
which consists of an exposition of a sentence taken from

L1TBRARY ESSAYS. 343

alone is god. To speak of greatness : How splendid are
the heavens ! which display not only the sun and moon,
but the stars and constellations, with the whole circle of
celestial phenomena; the voices of which are heard in the
thunder, while the dews and moistures, zephyrs and rains,
silently proclaim the undeviating rectitude of the seasons.
How beautiful is the earth ! sustaining not only herbs
and trees, but mountains and hills, rivers and seas,
divided into orders, according to the six breaths,* which
in silence produce all things.

" Sages unfold material objects, perfect affairs, and
imitate heaven and earth's silent system of annihilation
and reproduction, which alternately prevails. The subli-
mity of infinite sincerity, cherished from the smallest
beginnings, proceeds through the heart which is saturated
with it, to perfect itself in infinite greatness; and is
employed by the gods to preserve the golden medium of
the universe. The sages alone fully comprehend this
virtue. The common people practise it without under*
standing its nature. Emperors and princes, with their
seven songs, answer to the renovating influences of a
pure river.

" Wandering spirits which defile the age are regarded
as demons or dragons. From a water mansion proceeds a
heavenly palace; from a petty kingdom is derived an
emperor's throne. Perhaps a faithful minister, a dutiful
son, and a just scholar, are able to pass from obscurity
into splendour, to reform flagrant evils, and promote the
practice of virtue. Great leaders adopt benevolence
and tenderness as their rule. With uprightness and
generosity they supply the deficiency of heaven and

• Tbe kmr point* of the pow pw , ami •rnitii. and nadir.

344

LITERARY DEGRESS.

earth's renovating influences, and avert the ruin of ancient
and modern instruction, embracing the greatest and sifting
the smallest matters. The retired scholar diffuses his fame
and flourishes, but the gate of the splendid and opulent
is of short duration : this is the constant law of human
nature."

The Chinese think no gentleman's education is com-
plete without travelling to visit the most remarkable
regions, lakes, and mountains, in their own empire, to
which allusions are constantly made in their lighter com-
positions, and for whose guidance they have a specific
director) - ; no admission, however, is made of the benefit
that would accrue from a visit to foreign countries, in the
removal of prejudice and the illumination of the mind.
These two divisions, prose and poetry, embrace what is
required of candidates for the highest literary degree, from
whom persons are to be selected to rule the empire. The
ancient literature of China, her histories, moral philo-
sophy, and ceremonies, having already passed under
review, her lighter literature and physical theories are to
be discussed in this chapter. These subjects, divided
generally into prose and poetry, will consist chiefly of
historical novels and domestic histories. It is important
to have access to a considerable portion of the literature
of a country whose shores pertinaciously refuse hospi-
tality to strangers, and therefore render it difficult to
learn existing customs and manners from living forms of
familiar intercourse. The works of highest repute, in-
cluding both poetry and prose, are the five ancient
classics, which, though they treat only of political and
moral theories, are yet invested with the most sacred
character. The circumstances that considerably augment

LITERARY WORKS. 346

their value in the estimation of the people are their
great antiquity, and the prohibition of the right of author*
ship, whereby the literature already in existence is con-
stituted by the government the impassable barrier of
supreme excellence.

In every respect, the sentiments spread throughout
Chinese writings are of a very meagre character, embrac-
ing the narrowest range of subjects most unphilosophi-
cally discussed. The principal attraction to Europeans,
in their most popular authors, must be their modes of
illustration, and of carrying on intercourse between minds
of varied powers and attainments, and the descriptions
furnished of their domestic manners and daily habits of
life. Histories, which in all countries form an attractive
subject, are rendered readable in China chiefly by the
fictions with which they are interspersed ; which, on the
other hand, as they divest such writings of all authen-
ticity, render them unworthy of the name they bear.

Mere chronological statements of names and events,
unaccompanied by any improving disquisition on cha-
racter, or aid from collateral subjects of science and art,
but containing minute references to hills and dales, tombs
and mansions, scenes of civil discord or foreign coi
create an interest in the minds of natives with
Europeans have no sympathy. If, as it is alleged, trea-
tises on habits and manners originated in the commands
of a sovereign, who could not himself mix with the people,
but desired to understand their modes of life, it may be
supposed the chief point of attention would be to delineate
their actual condition, unless fiction were resorted to for
the sake of impressing his majesty with false notions of the
happiness of his subjects, which would then be described

"

346 IMPERIAL PATRONAGE

to suit his tastes ; and, therefore, though it failed to de-
lineate real life, would at least teach wherein, according to
Chinese opinions, its real comforts consisted.

As an unvarnished history of human nature in its best
estate is pregnant with ills and disquietudes, those
writers in all countries, whether situated in tropical, tem-
perate, or polar regions, and distinguished by Paganism
or Christianity, who have wished to give alluring de-
scriptions of humanity, have been constrained to draw
largely on the resources of the imagination, to feign a
state which had no real existence, but which was imagined
to be one of unmingled felicity. The scenes of moral and
physical evil, which are depicted with disgusting minute-
ness in many Chinese works, give a tearful impression of
the reality of the picture drawn, while the corrupting
influence of the writer's loathsome details, which pro-
fessedly discountenance vice, is a striking set-off against
the lessons of morality inculcated in other authors. The
most impure of these productions are generally couched
under some figurative title, which conveys no idea of
their real character.

In the century before the Christian sera, the emperor
Seuen-te, of the Han dynasty, summoned classical scho-
lars from various parts of the empire, to discourse on the
harmonies and discrepancies of the ancient classics ; and
hence persons were regularly inducted to the office of
serving classic feasts to the emperor. Prior to this time,
for many ages, no one was permanently appointed to
such employment, but the emperor called on whom he
pleased In read and explain ancient authors to him.

Princes and rulers have ever url'ccted great love for
learning, and, to a certain extent, patronized erudite per-

OP CLASSICAL LITERATURE. 347

sons, more especially those who were renerable for years
as well as acquirements. In the eighth century of our
«ra, an institution, designated the " Hall for the elegant
and correct Composition of Books/' had its name changed
to the " Hall of Assembled Worthies/' from whom an
emperor of the Tang dynasty daily selected an aged
scholar to read to him. The ancient classics hare always
been held in deep reneration by the superior classes of
Chinese society, on account, no doubt, of the patronage
bestowed by gorernment on those records of olden times*
The title " learned scholar," is applied, with other descrip-
tive epithets, to some of the first ministers of the sovereign,
who were appointed to lecture in his hearing on disputed
passages in the classics.

In the seventh century of our sura, learned persons were
sought by the emperor to write his official edicts, who
obtained the title of " northern gate literati," in conse-
quence of their waiting at that gate to receive their
summons to the imperial presence. About a hundred
years later the " hall of a pencil forest "* was instituted ;
that is, a college of learned men was founded by Yuen-
tsung, to be prepared whenever the emperor should inter-
rogate them on literature and language. The members
of this national institute are deputed, in various ways, to
communicate the imperial will by means of official docu-
ments ; and to superintend the composition of historical
and statistical works ; some of whom compile and publish
books, for which others collate manuscripts, and collect
materials.

There are several other departments assigned to dif-
ferent members, some of whom prepare a form of prayer

• See page M3, for the political ofcjwts of Uus

IMPERIAL COLLEGES.

to be recited on public occasions, on a day which the
astronomical board selects as felicitous. In the same
century (the seventh) a college was established for the
sons and brothers of the Mung-koo Tartars. The title
of the superintendent — "the pourer out of a libation in
sacrifice amongst the sons of the nation," — was taken
from the ancient practice previously alluded to, of pouring
out a libation on the earth, to which it was offered, as
the source of human nutriment.* The sons and grand-
sons of courtiers have studied in this institution. Students
from Corea, and other places on the frontiers of China,
have been members of it: at one period of its history
as many as eight thousand were residents at the same
time. Several of the tutors had a comprehensive ac-
quaintance, it is said, with ancient and modern history :
some understood music, others attended to general lite-
rature, and the rest were taught the science of numbers.

There are separate schools for youth between ten and
twenty years of age, where the collateral branches of the
imperial family are taught Manchow Tartar and Chinese
literature, with horsemanship and archery- These two
last are indispensable; for as the present dynasty ob-
tained the empire by the sword and the bow, it ordains
the same means to be used for the preservation of it.

It is the custom of an editor, when a work is re-pub-
lished in China, not to dedicate it to a patron, but to
introduce it to the world under the auspices of a well-
written preface, from the pen of some official personage
or influential friend. Of these prefaces some are valuable
only from the rank and title of the writers, the highest
order of whom is imperial majesty, who condescends occa-
" See ptgt W4.

MODE OF PUBLISHING BOORS. 349

sionally to use the vermilion pencil to write a royal preface ;
a page or two, therefore, in the beginning of a work written
in red ink, is always an imperial production. To standard
works there are frequently several prefaces, written with
different degrees of ability, which are valuable not only
for the style, but because they contain the germ of sen-
timents embodied in the treatises to which they are
prefixed.

The following extract is selected, both as a specimen
of the manner in which publishers compliment themselves,
and because it belongs to a work especially designed for
youth, entitled, " Drawings and Descriptions of Trees of
the Bamboo species." The contents are distributed into
eight classes .-—drawings in pencil ; flowers in ink ; fruit
families; peacocks' feathers; the epidendrum family of
the class gynandria ; the reed family ; the plum family ;
and the stone family, that is, minerals. These several
topics are sufficiently miscellaneous to raise a question on
the propriety of their order, and the singularity of the
arrangement of minerals with botany ; but this is com*
mon with the Chinese. My object in translating the
following preface is to illustrate their mode of publi-
cation.

" This collection has been prepared from the laborious
researches of preceding sages, out of the abundant sup-
plies of the universe, and consists of plants, peacocks*
feathers, trees, and minerals. Each substance being in-
telligibly distinguished, accurately drawn, and graphically
described, constitutes this work the scholar's golden needle
(in allusion to the needle of the mariner's compass) ; and
the precious raft of the literati (in reference to an »mm»nw
ship, of which tradition has preserved a memorial, pro-

350 CONPITCIUS OH THE

bably Noah's ark). The original blocks on wliich the
work was stereotyped, had been used so lung that the
divine periods were almost obliterated : a calamity of such
a nature as to cause the student to look to the fathomless
;.liv-s, ;hmI ilccplv .-i^li. ll;i|'|.ily, tin- garden ^tore-house
of blocks existed, where original genealogical record- of
successive generations may still be seen ; and here a
carefully revised new edition was put to press ; (literally,
put to the date and the pear-trees, of the wood of which
the blocks for printing in China is made); so that, like
a cottage on the brow of a mountain, the eye will not be
obscured with clouds and smoke, while the mind dwells
with delight on the production with which former sages
felicitated and blessed future scholars."

The following dialogue, between Confucius and an in-
quirer after truth, forms an introduction to the She-
king, the ancient standard of Chinese poetry; 1 have,
therefore, translated it to give the views of the sage on
this department of literature; and more especially as,
with the succeeding remarks from the same work, it pre-
sents a correct outline of Chinese poetry at the present
day.

" When Confucius was asked what originated poetry,
he replied, Man was horn in perfect stillness, which is
the essence of heaven ; but as he came in contact with
material objects, the desires of his nature began to njw—
rate. Now, since he has desires, he cannot but think ;
and where thoughts are cherished, there must necessarily
be words. If words do not exhaust the thoughts, the
subject of them must have recourse to sighs and groans.
If these prove insufficient, he must resort to the vocal
sounds peculiar to his species : this is the origin of poetry.

ORIGIH OF POETRY. 361

If this be the case, then, how is the art of poetry taught?
Poetry is the embodying in words the influence which man
exercises over things ; and as the mind may have a good
or bad influence, so the figure of that influence, delineated
in words, may be right or wrong.

" The sages, who constitute the highest class of human
beings, cannot be wrong, and hence their words are
adequate sources of perfect instruction. The blending of
their influence with their doctrine renders it impossible to
be other than of the selectest kind. Superior men must
think of the means by which they will turn round upon
themselves ; and hence, from admonition and correction,
methodical instruction is derived. From the time of Chow-
shing's unenclosed places for sacrifice, temples, and courts,
down to districts, villages, clans, and lanes, oral instruc-
tion, pure and unmixed, has wholly proceeded from perfect
rectitude. The sages, indeed, have harmonized the laws
of sound, by which the inhabitants of districts, provinces,
and nations have sought to renovate the world.

" With regard to the odes produced in eminent states, the
emperor is their guardian, who also arranges their order,
investigates their nature, and fixes the canon of promo-
tion and degradation. Passing over the intervening ages,
we come to the times of Confucius, who when in a retired
station, without power to act, exhort, degrade, or promote,
revised the tablets on which the statistics of his country-
men were inscribed. He removed their redundancies and
corrected their discrepancies; but this effort failing of
success, he had them engraven and left them; an act
which has caused his revisions never to be forgotten in
all subsequent ages.

" Me employed philosophers and scholars, and invexti-

■352 ORIGIN OF POETRY.

gated their attainments and deficiencies, that I
imitate the virtuous and reform the unworthy ; I
although his government was not sufficiently powerful to
flourish for one season, his instructions have really been
perpetuated throughout all subsequent generations. If
this be the case then, remarked the inquirer, poetry must
be an equally available medium of communicating instruc-
tion. The sage replied, Certainly. Its principal divisions
are three : — the first a fang, which consists of the ballads
and songs of villagers made by themselves, and sung by
males and females who mutually give utterance to their
peculiar feelings in alternate responses.

" In the state Chow, those who had been renovated by
Wan-wang"s # influence, were summoned to the south, lo
perfect their virtues, where all had an opportunity of
attaining the rectitude of their dispositions and feelings,
which, when displayed in words, must not degenerate into
lasciviousness, if their strain be joyful; nor be injuriously in-
dulged if it be sorrowful; therefore these two points alone
constitute the correct classical odes of the national air —
fang. From that period to later ages, as among the
states there was good and bad government, so there were
virtuous and unworthy subjects ; and the manifestation of
these influences discovered the difference which subsists
between rectitude and depravity ; hence what were called
the popular ballads of former kings — the/a»^ — underwent
a complete change.

" With regard to the ya and img, they also were origin-
ated in the age of Chow, and consist of songs set to music
and sung at the court, the national sacrifices, and the
temples. The language in which they were composed

* An sneient prin« eminent for Tirto*.

ORIGIN OF PORTRV. 363

was harmonious and grave ; the sentiments they expressed
were liberal and delicate, always composed by the disciples
of the sages, and became the unchangeable models of ten
thousand ages. The alterations that have occurred to the
ya were effected by the customs of good and worthy men
in times of grief and sickness, which the sages adopted :
the heart evinced fidelity, respect, commiseration, and con-
stancy ; the ideas, promotion of virtue and suppression of
vice. Moreover, in all future ages, these odes have formed
the unrivalled classical standard ; since they contain every
principle necessary to enrich human affairs below, and
elucidate the ways of heaven above. How then are they
to be studied? The authors of them sought out and
blended together the original principles of our nature.
The confederated* states adapted them to the varying
circumstances of their political condition ; corrected them
by the ya f in order to enlarge their influence, and harmo-
nized them by the sung, in order to define their limits ;
this constitutes the great principle of studying poetry.
From this proceeded sections and passages to connect
them generally, and explanations and elucidations to ar-
range them separately. Poetry is chanted, in order to
illumine it; enriched, in order to consolidate it. The
examination of it discloses the secret springs of the dis-
position, the discrimination of it is the hinge on which the
words and actions begin to turn ; and then the cultivation
of personal and domestic virtues, peace and equity, prevail
throughout the empire, which do not require to be sought
by any other means. The inquirer expressed his approba-
tion and withdrew.**

* The Chine** term applied to individuals denotes eminence in learning
and rirtne. See page 215 of this work.

2 A

354

POWER OK POETRY.

"

The nature and uses of poetry are further explained in
the same work: — " Poetry is the natural tendency of the
human will which resides in the heart. Its essence con-
sists in internal excitement ; its external form in suitable
expressions, which, aided by sighs and groans, broke out
into eternal songs, which were still found insufficient (o
express the emotions of the soul even before posture-
making and dancing were discovered as its ultimate re-
quirements. The inward workings of the animal nature,
in other words the seven passions — -joy, anger, grief, fear,
love, hatred, and desire — displayed in sounds, which by cul-
tivation became musical, were the true sources of the in-
fluence poetry obtained in ruling over the world. If these
sounds were peaceful and joyful, they indicated the pros-
perity of the government ; if resentful and acrimonious, its
perversity; hut if marked by grief and commiseration, then
they proclaimed the lost state of the nation. As the
passions differ in their nature, so also must the notes of
music, which are clear and thick, high and low, swift utd
slow, and open(or coarse), mutually responding in harmony:
wherefore, in adjusting your affairs of profit and loss, iu-
fluencing demons and gods, and moving heaven and earth,
there is nothing equal to poetry. For the recitation of
odes in a musical tone impels the prosperous to the utmost
point of harmony and peace, rouses the unfortunate to the
highest pitch of anger and resentment, is sufficiently
powerful to penetrate the elements of the two first princi-
ples,* to promote felicity aud call down calamities. Since
poetry proceeds from nature, and is not dependant on
human strength, it pierces the deepest receuUH dI BJHfcj
and penetrates his swiftest movements, to which tl[,i

• Yin anil Yang.

POWER OP POETRY. 355

medium of instruction can reach. By poetry, former kings
regulated matrimony, perfected filial piety, honoured the
human relations, adorned the renovating influences of
education, and changed national customs."

To comprehend the whole of these objects, three other
divisions, called the woof (foo, pe, hing), are added to the
warp (fung, ya, sung). According to native distinctions,
the foo, which corrects and arranges the matter, the pe f
which illustrates by comparisons, and the hing, that in-
structs by similitudes, are the means by which the elegance
and graces of the three other divisions are displayed.
These names seem to have been borrowed from notes in
music, of which they still constitute a class, the first of
which (fung) represents fifteen national airs, the second
(ya) is divided into two parts, and the third (sung) into
three ; both which are also names of musical instruments.
For how numerous soever musical compositions may be,
their individual notes and united harmony are compre-
hended in these six divisions, in the knowledge of which,
it is the duty of the teacher of music to instruct the sons of
the nation, who will then be able without further aid to
arrange each department in its proper order, and to recite
poetical compositions with success.

The uses of poetry, according to these heads, are thus
attained : " superiors, by odes, renovate inferiors ; inferiors,
by odes, satirize their superiors. The cultivation and
criticisms of literature are without guile in their authors,
and admonitory to their hearers, and hence they are
called fung — 4 wind, air, influence* — an element from
which the custom of reciting odes has been derived, and
whose name they bear, because it is the property of the
wind to move things in connection with sound. Where

2 a 2

IIIATf irTHKISTirS 111" PDETUY.

royal doctrines decay, ceremonial rites become obsolete,
and national instruction fails, then the government of
states is subverted, the usages of families alienated, while
the national airs and political harmonies are destroyed."
The first of these three principal divisions would therefore
seem to be national, the second political, the third mural
and sacred; and the three subordinate ones, the different
methods employed to elucidate each of them. By some
writers the whole six divisions are characterized by the
following properties : the first of the series, embodying the
social and political principles of ancient sages; the second,
simple statements of virtues and vices ; the third, satirical
allusions when the poet is afraid to attack openly ; the
fourth, metaphorical encomiums on those who are dis-
pleased with direct praises; the fifth, sentiments for the
guidance of posterity ; the sixth, praises of virtuous ac-
tions. But as the Chinese seldom adhere rigidly to the
distinctions they create, I am inclined to the opiniou of
those writers who affirm that these different topics are
intermingled in practice. In the She-king there art-
specimens of the varied subjects, but they are such
wretched compositions, both for matter and melody, that
after considerable research I could not satisfy myself
with one worth transcribing; still it would be wrong la
infer from thence that there are not occasionally touch-
ing sentiments of a tender or melancholy nature, or of an
elevated and pleasing character.

There is nothing like epic poetry in this department of
literature in China. Their poetical productions of a more
modern date consist principally of popular songs, dra-
matic compositions, and the verses made at literary
examinations already noticed.

F KM ALB LITERATURE. 357

The plays of the Yuen dynasty are many of them set
to music, which is the principal production of the Chinese
on an extensive scale. Some of the titles of other works
are singular, as the " Broad-brimmed Old Gentleman, in
ten songs/' the subjects of which are distributed in the
following order : " the tender, fragrant associate ; seduc-
tive Rolian music; human volitions coinciding with supreme
fate; the sea-monster at the threshold; the female phoenix
seeking the male; Heaven's decree the only resource;
the fish which compares eyes; the gem scratching the
head ; the affectionate union ingeniously completed ; and
elegant intercourse between the bride and the bridegroom.' 9

These subjects contain allusions to their prevailing
sentiments, as the Chinese student will perceive, which
constitute their unfailing resources for all literary adven-
turers. There is only one more work in the Morrison
Library that I will mention — the songs of the imperial
harem — the literal title of which is, " The Great Music of
the Nine Halls."

Female literature is not very prominent in China ; but
there are books to direct the conduct of females, if there
are few written by females themselves. One of the former
description, entitled " Sayings and Doings of Female Lite-
rature," comprises four things of importance incumbent
upon a woman ; these are : to put away selfishness, culti-
vate politeness, read books, and manage affairs ; the four
doctrines or principles connected with them are, serving
her own parents, her husband's parents, her husband, and
her children.

There is another work, designated " Memoirs of Cele-
brated Women," the edition of which before me was
edited by the son of a late Governor of Canton ; it contains

368 UUtlKS UF FICTION.

the names and deeds of certain eminent females, whose
conduct has been handed down as a model to their sex,
one of whom is Mencius's mother, who was praised for
reproving her eon's indolence, by cutting asunder the web
which she was weaving, to show him that as it could never
be completed without continued labour, so it was equally
impossible to be a scholar without unwearied perseverance.
The same lady is represented as setting her son right on the
principles of politeness. Having one day taken • rfSenct ;ft
his wife for not being prepared in due form to receive him,
he immediately determined to separate from her; but his
mother told him there were duties of ceremony incumbent
on the husband as well as the wife, and if he had entered
her apartment with all the previous caution that was
necessary, in scraping his shoes, coughing, and making
other noises, his wife would have been forewarned of his
approach, and lie would not have caught her thus unpn-
pared. He acknowledged his error, and continued to live
with his wife.

Among a great number of light works, there is one
called " An Evening's Conversation," which contains a
variety of short stories on ghosts and other subjects.
Others, with some mystic title, contain memoirs of passing
occurrences or existing families. A celebrated novel,
under the title of "Dreams of the Hed Chamber,"' is a
memoir of a wealthy family in Peking. Most of those
with titles of a figurative or mystic nature conceal histories
or anecdotes of particular persons. In works of great
value the characters are numbered at the end of i;uh
section, the names of which are derived from the two fast
words of each, irrespective of the sense,
similar to some of the books of the Hebrew Bible.

a manner
>le.

MEDICAL WORKS. 359

In tracing the theories of the Chinese on the art of
healing, it will be convenient to divide them into the
departments of medicine, surgery, and medical jurispru-
dence, preceded by a few remarks on the general system.

The original elements have relation to the five viscera,
which the physician ought to be acquainted with before
he can be a proficient in his own profession ; since it is a
knowledge of this theory which enables him, when feeling
the pulse of his patients, to ascertain their state of health.
It is well known that the Chinese carry the doctrine of
the pulse to a very extravagant extent, and have pretended
to discover symptoms of disease, where skilful European
practitioners, examining the same patient, could discover
no unusual indications. Such notions afford wide scope
for trickery and deceit ; and although they appear non-
sensical to the more enlightened nations of the west, yet
much real evil is thereby occasioned to the minds, bodies,
and estates of vast masses of human beings.

The best medical works are arranged on the principle,
that all parts of the material world are mutually con-
nected, and that a person of acute discernment is able to
trace the connection between the three original powers,
heaven, earth, and man, and the constituent parts of the
human frame; whence attempts are made to classify
diseases according to the supposed influence of those over-
ruling, all-controlling energies. The pulse, as it may be
naturally supposed, has, in connection with such a sub-
ject, excited numerous speculations and called forth a
variety of fanciful theories, the doctrine of which, together
with the circulation of the blood, is supposed to have been
known in high antiquity ; and, singular enough, it is felt,
to ascertain the fortune of a man, as well as the state of

360

CELEBRATED ' \l

1

his health. Medical practice proceeds on the pri neiple
that man is a small universe, a microcosm, and that the
dual powers in nature must act in mutual combination and
harmony, without excess or defect, to secure the healthi-
ness of the human system. According to this theory,
the two powers are supposed to operate on the female as
well as the male, notwithstanding that she is usually
classed with darkness and imperfection, and he with light
and strength. The substances of the materia medico of
the Chinese are all classed under one or other of t In.- rive
elements, which, as it has been shown above, are connected
with the five tastes and the five colours.

Some analogy doubtless subsists between the visible
objects with which we are surrounded and the human
frame; but it is more easy to draw out a fanciful system in
theory, with no other guide hut an ardent imagination,
(ban to yield to a patient induction of facts, under the
direction of chastened reason and an enlightened under-
standing. The idea of the Chinese is, that disease arises
from a predominance or deficiency of the one or other of
these five elements in the human frame ; and hence super-
stitious notions and practices have an ample sphere of in-
fluence both with the patient and his professional advisers.

There have been principally four eminent writers on the
art of medicine in China ; one lived in the third century of
the Christian era, who wrote an original work on fever,
which, in the judgment of the imperial college of physi-
cians, was not indebted to any preceding publication for a
single sentence. He was the originator of prescriptions, but
erred in giving immoderately large doses of medicine. He
is probably the first and greatest physician of the Chinese.

There U U ancient work which embodies the results qJ

WRITERS UP ANTIQUITY. 361

certain consultations between two personages in high
antiquity on splanchnology, and recognizes the doctrine of
the circulation of the blood ; but almost all medical works
are introduced by reflections on the system of nature, and
hence the difficulty of separating what is fanciful from
what has some foundation in the nature of tilings, and in
the analogies subsisting between them.

In selecting a work of first authority in China, as our
text book on this subject, " The Golden Mirror of Medical
Practice," published under the auspices of the Emperor
Keen-lung, claims attention. It contains the edicts of
the emperor, commanding its publication under the su-
perintendence of the ministers of state and the college
of physicians, with the usual prefaces to each edition ; the
first in the fourth, and the last in the seventh year of his
reign, to the effect that " the emperor has commanded
all the courts of law to revise medical works for the culti-
vation of medical science. The ministers charged with
carrying it into effect proclaim the duties entrusted to
them with surpassing reverence and exultation; since
the principles of medical knowledge had become obsolete,
and the rules by which its ancient authorities were guarded
had long ceased to exist. Moreover, because medical
works had become adulterated, and the practice of medi-
cine unknown, our imperial supreme emperor, with a holy,
tender, and benevolent heart, regarding the people as
his children, and desiring them altogether to ascend to
old age's utmost limit, extended his virtuous purposes
until they were unlimited as heaven ; and since it was for
the long life, and the public business of the people of ten
thousand a^c*, the ministers of state immediately as*
semblcd together in the medical hall/'

Ab2 CLASSIFICATION OF I

Then follow the names of the celebrated servants of Um
sovereign, preceding the treatises on the different subjects.
The work itself consists of forty large volumes: six on
injuries sustained by cold ; four on the golden case (the
chest) ; four containing celebrated prescriptions; three on
affections of the heart ; five on complaints more especially
incident to females and youth ; four on cutaneous diseases,
especially the small-pox ; six on surgery, with reference to
the trunk, bones, limbs, and other members of the system ;
three on cauterizing ; and four on the state of the air. A
tonic prescription, or a dose of medicine for repairing the
strength, is the first of a series of prescriptions in (he
" Mirror of Medical Practice." Boluses, pills, and
powders, are the forms in which drugs are administered.
Common salts have been long used ; rhubarb and mercury
have also been famous medicines for many ages. The
first written prescriptions do not appear to reach higher
than the third century of our rera, while the diseases

lumerated chiefly refer to those which include fevers
occasioned by colds.

Cutaneous eruptions of the severest kind are very com-
mon. Leprosy, at least that species of it which I have
seen, is of a pure white, very common, and not, as far as I
remember, of the copper-coloured spots usually referred to
in European treatises, as symptomatic of this disease.
From the heat of the climate and the irritation generated
by other causes, it is no uncommon thing for limbs to be
destroyed, and other parts of the body essentially injured
by cutaneous diseases, which ere long terminate in death.
From a variety of prescriptions, the following, with its
comments, is selected as a BpKUMS,

" The jin-sen/f and fou-Hzr liipi

'i'o ragnhtt tht-

HPECIMEN OP PRESCRIPTIONS. 363

breath and blood of the Yin and Yang, let a dose of the
jin-seng and /bo (a medicinal herb) be taken, prepared with
boiling water." In remarks on this, it is stated : " The
former part of the body, when produced, is called the
prior heaven ; the latter, the subsequent heaven. The
constitution of the first depends upon the kidneys, which
are the gift of the father and mother ; the constitution of
the second depends upon the stomach, which is renovated
by water and grain. The * prior heaven ' is the substance
of the primary principles in nature pre-eminent for repose,
and therefore the child enwrapped within the womb
depends upon its mother's quietness for nourishment, and
then in its living breath the divine concealment and
secret springs of life will be tranquil. The subsequent
heaven's breath is the use of the primary principles in
nature, which is carried out in motion ; therefore, after the
nourishment of figure, water and grain are administered
to it; and in the production of the body, the divine
impulse is set in motion and begins to circulate ; heaven
and man unite their virtues. The two substrata, that is,
motion and rest, are in mutual operation, whence the
' latter heaven's breath,' having obtained the ' former
heaven's breath,' there is life, and where there is life there
is no repose ; but if the former heaven's breath obtains the
latter, renovation commences ; where there is renovation,
there is no exhaustion. If, in motion or at rest, the kid*
neys are injured by want of care, the former heaven's
breath will be empty : if eating and drinking be immode-
rate, the stomach will be injured, and the latter heaven's
breath be empty. Now to supply this latter deficiency,
there is nothing equal to the draft made from the two
ingredients, ji*-$e*g and Joo-Ust. If the viscera are ever

MEDICINAL PRACTICE.

so reduced, these medicines are esteemed of the first im-
portance for quickly restoring the system to its wonted
strength." Several other directions are given, for altering
the prescription on the appearauce of different symptoms,
but with all the alterations, j'tn-seng is retained.

I give this quotation, not with the hope of illuminating
the faculty in Europe on the subject of medical treatment,
but to show the superstitious notions and childish practices
adopted by the most eminent Chinese physicians, who,
during a long succession of ages, have had every oppor-
tunity of improving physical science, which an extensive
and populous country, yielding the natural productions of
every variety of climate and soil, was adapted to supply.

The term applied by the Chinese to the physician's
department, medicine, is internal practice; that used to
describe surgery, external practice. The work from which
the following abstract of surgery is taken, bears the desig-
nation "The Golden Mirror of External Practice." It
treats principally of tumours, ulcers, and external eruptions
in various parts of the human frame, beginning with the
head, and proceeding in order throughout the body thus :
The first class of tumours or ulcers especially belong to the
head ; under which are those of the brain, designated the
organ of one hundred assemblies, because of its compli-
cated nervous system ; those which penetrate the brain,
others contiguous to these but only on one side of the
head, those which are found ou the forehead and on either
side; some produced at the corner of the right eye are
designated male tumours ; others, from their vicinity to the
hair, are called hair tumours, whether at the top of the
head or ou the margin of the hair of either side ; others,
designated ■• heaven's tumours, peaked and poisonous,"

SURGICAL PRACTICE. 366

are found behind each ear, a protuberance of one inch and
three-tenths in size, that is, in height from the skin ;
another, the "diamond pillow" tumour, upon the bone
directly behind the head, designated by that name, situated
four and a half inches behind the cavity of the brain ;
another, in shape like a cross piece of wood, called a brain
" smelter or shaver ;" another, called " oil and wind," is
a sort of prurient ulcer, the symptoms of which are dried
hair and the peeling off of the skin, bright red appearance
with intolerable itching; the common name is " the
demon head-shaver;" another on the face, which causes
the skin to become dry and rub off; another called the
" bald ulcer," of similar properties ; another the " insect
ulcer ;" and finally the ulcer in the neck, at the root of the
hair, to which corpulent persons are peculiarly liable : these
are the definitions of the tumours which especially affect
the head. In the same work, the second class embraces
those which refer to the face ; the third class, different
shapes of tumours on the top of the head ; the fourth,
those which are peculiar to the back; the fifth, those
which are found in the chest ; and then others on the eye,
nose, ear, mouth, lips, gums, lower extremities, armpit,
ribs, and sinewy part of the muscles. Internal ulcers are
such as affect the lungs ; the viscera, large and small ; the
stomach, including the receptacle for the food and the
coat; the liver, heart, kidneys; together with ulcers of
the lower class. The subject is concluded with a discus-
sion of the modes of treatment.

In a surgical work, entitled " Important Laws for
Guiding the Needle and the Cauterizing Iron,'* which seems
to have been brought from Japan, there are several rude
outlines of the human frame, with a minute description of

36G MEDIC*!. JCniSPRUDEKcE.

each part. Although the work appears to have been printed
nt Japan, the knowledge it originally contained was, 00
doubt, carried from China.

The Chinese have terms in their language to express the
art of cauterizing with caustic stones, and by hot iron ;
others show that they must have been early acquainted with
methods for reducing the excrescences of the skin, to w hich
they seem to have been anciently subjected. The ancient
Hebrews, as we find from the Scriptures, and no doubt all
the earlier nations, used stone, before the use of iron, or
the mode of preparing it, was known. The surgical an
is not likely in any of its departments to make great pro-
gress in China, until the notions of the people are cor-
rected respecting the use of the body after death. Bopo*
riment, however, so far as it has been made, has proved
that they are not very scrupulous about operations per-
formed on the body while living, so long as they hare the
hope of thereby preserving life and promoting health.

There are numerous points, of great interest to Euro-
peans, in the character of the Chinese, beyond that of
other Oriental nations, and one is their resolute oppaeWoa
to the trammels of religious superstition. That they have
their superstitions has already been shown ; but they are
not like those of the Hindoos, than whom the Chinese are
generally much more business-like in their habits, and
would much more readily yield to proposals made for
their general welfare, than a people trained up from in-
fancy in terror of the priesthood, and implicit obedience
to the least expression of its will.

With regard to mt>ilic<ilj>tri.ipriiilci>ce,nn extract from a
work, boating the title " Records of Washing away In-
juries" t hut is taking ample revenge for cruelties inilieted.

EXTRACT FROM A CHINESE WORK. 367

will give a brief view of the system adopted by the Chi-
nese. It evidently originated in the conviction that if the
law did not provide for the satisfaction of persons who
had lost relatives by a violent death, the survivors would
take the responsibility of inflicting summary punishment
on the offenders. The details of the law, which, as usual,
are extremely minute, are introduced in the following
manner : —

" There is no affair of greater moment than the preser-
vation of human life; nor any punishment more awful
than that of death, to which every murderer exposes him-
self without hope of pardon. He who (ails to administer
the due proportion of punishment can never enjoy tran-
quillity of mind ; and hence, to assist in prosecutions and
to determine punishments, complete evidence that fatal
injuries have been inflicted on the body must be obtained
by official examinations. This being done, the sentence
must be passed, and the just retribution of life for life
exacted. If you cause those who know the law to fear it,
the people will seldom transgress, and many lives will
thereby be preserved. But if official examinations be in-
complete, satisfaction for the dead will not be obtained ;
and should satisfaction of the living be procured by the
sacrifice of two or three lives for one, enmity and revenge
will mutually succeed, and who can tell where the cala-
mity will end ? Those who have received injury, where
its fatal effects are not immediate, ought before death to
make a deposition in the presence of the magistrate, that
he himself may immediately, by examination, elucidate
the nature of the injury, its locality, and importance ; and
a time must then be fixed by the coroner and physician
within which it may be hoped health will be restored.

368 EXTRACT FHOM A CHINESE WOnK.

But if death ensues, another examination must forthwith
take place, and the result be recorded, that the barbarous
practice of breaking open and examining the bod]
be prevented.

" In the destruction of life by violence, there should he
an inquest on the body without delay, before any change
takes place by decomposition; when the wounds, whether
slight or severe, larger or smaller, will be easily deter-
mined, and the decision pronounced according to law. If
delay takes place, the body will be disordered, and the
flesh dissolved, so that there will be danger lest the truth
should be sacrificed; and thus the first object of human
life will be perverted. An official person, who perforins
the necessary offices to a corpse, and stimulates the con-
federates of the guilty party to a violation of the orders
prescribed, renders it difficult to ascertain the path of
duty. In conducting examinations of the body as soon as
it is dead, first examine the middle of the neck at the
back part, then the roots of the hair, then the orifices of
the ear, then the nostrils, then the windpipe, and every
place where there is ingress or egress for any thing.

" Be apprehensive and guard against issuing sum-
monses and warrants without any cause, and afterwards
investigate the whole body. If there really ought to be
an examination, then, before proceeding to institute it,
inquire with great strictness into the testimony of relatives
and neighbours concerning the murder, commanding them
to state, unequivocally, where and by what weapon the
wound was inflicted, and to establish clearly their accusa-
tion. Then forthwith the relatives, the governor, the ma-
gistrate, and the coroner, shall bring together the pluin-
liit ni'l defendant, to the place where the body is laid, and

EXTRACT PROM A CHIWBSB WORK. 309

according to law examine them, and announce the de-
cision, determining by what wound the important injury
affecting life was produced ; whether it appeared in the
flesh or in the trunk, the back, the upper or lower ex-
tremities of the body ; whether it had broken or entered
the bones, or whether there was a discoloration, livid,
scarlet, yellow, or black ; whether the wound was round,
long or short, large or small; whether inflicted by the
hands, feet, or any other means ; whether the murderous
weapon was light or heavy, new or old, and when com-
pared with the size of the wound how it corresponds in
each particular. The body being investigated, let the
next of kin with his own hand write out a full account ;
do not employ the hand of a stranger.

" Do not let the officers on any account, from dislike of
the effluvia which may arise from the body, occupy a
high and distant position, the smoke of incense and the
fragrant partition,* bearing to hear the coroner's proclama-
tion, while the inferior officers write, in order to conceal
what is important, and announce what is trivial, to
diminish the much and increase the little. Moreover,
when a man has hung himself, cut his throat, or swal-
lowed poison, been burned, or drowned, all the different
causes of death must be carefully investigated, examined,
and deliberated upon, each circumstance offered up and
submitted to form a trustworthy case. But if such mea-
sures be not adopted, then the coroner, and the subor-
dinate officers, will invent vicious and spurious documents ;
and after the official examination, the murderer's artful
and specious defence, the accusations of the relatives, the

* Referring to the ■creen or wall which leparmtea the oftcer from the
body.

2 8

370 BOTANY.

discord sown by official litigants, the grasping extortion
of swindlers, each will cause cases to be made out with
difficulty, and to nullify official examinations — they will
boil the body and scrape the bones. And as for the dead,
the cruelties they have met with remain unavenged, and
the living are implicated in intolerable crimes, all which
arise from the want of promptness and sincerity in official
inquests.

" In all inquiries of a very difficult and doubtful cha-
racter, it will be necessary to pursue the examinations
more extensively, and almost without interruption, since
during the time within which a person dies from fighting,
the wounds and injuries are not manifest. If there are the
symptoms of disease, employ the remedies of the physi-
cian's and magician's art to cure it, because many die on
account of sickness ; but if you do not inquire into the
facts, how can you know ? Inquiries, however, ought not
altogether to depend on one man ; and they ought to be
skilfully conducted ; if not, you will frequently be the
subject of gross imposition."

I have translated thus far from this work to show the
care with which the Chinese government professes to
administer equal justice among the people, but it must
never be forgotten that their records and their acts differ
toto ccelo ; and that what, in writing, assumes the ap-
pearance of equity, founded on a common sense view
of matters, frequently in practice exhibits the grossest
tyranny and oppression.

In entering on the notice of botany, which must be
very brief, it may be well to premise that the system
submitted to the reader's notice is drawn from a work
acknowledged to be the best authority on this subject, and

CLASSES, ORDERS, SPECIES. 371

entitled an " Index of Original Herbs." It is introduced
with classes of metals, precious stones, minerals, salts,
and petrifactions, and concludes with several species of
animals, insects, birds, fishes, reptiles, and man. The
divisions of each subject are three : clones, orders, and
species; of the first there are sixteen, of the second
sixty-two, of the third 1,871. As my object is to show
the general manner in which the Chinese treat subjects
of this nature, I will take from this work specimens on
each topic as it proceeds. The volumes which imme-
diately follow the general index contain a list of
drugs for all the various diseases of the human frame,
which are divided into two classes ; and these are again
subdivided to correspond with the five elements, which
the reader will recognize as the basis of the material
universe.

The first is the water class, divided into two orders,
heavenly and earthly, the former of which has thirteen,
the latter thirty species ; the second is the fire class,
which comprehends eleven species ; the third is the earth
class, which has sixty species; the fourth the metal
and stone class, of which there are five orders : 1 , metals
containing twenty-eight species ; 2, precious stones, four-
teen species ; 3, stones of the first division, thirty-two
species ; 4, of the second division, thirty-nine species ; 5,
natural salt, twenty species, with a supplementary addi-
tion of twenty more. The metals and stones, fossils and
minerals, include vermilion, quicksilver, orpiment, a
medicinal mineral (hwa shih), stones of the five original
colours — white, red, green, black, and yellow— charcoal-
wood, stones in wells and springs, stalactites, variegated
stones, asphaltum, coal, lime, the magnet (literally the

2b 2

372 PLANTS, GRAIN8, FRUIT.

affectionate stone), diamonds, petrified crabs, serpents,
silkworms, swallows, and tortoises — and thunderbolts.
The different kinds of salt enumerated are sea-salt, salt
from ponds, rock-salt, salt from wells, crystallizations,
natural salt, and manufactured salt.

Of the botanical division, the first class — herbs — includes
eleven orders: 1, " mountain plants," which has seventy
species; 2, " fragrant plants," fifty-six species; 3, " marshy
plants," one hundred and twenty species ; 4, " poisonous
plants," or those whose use is attended with danger,
forty-seven species ; 5, " scandent plants," those which
want support, ninety-two species ; 6, u water plants,"
twenty-two species ; 7, " stone plants," such as grow on
stones or rocks — house-leek and ferns — nineteen species ;
8, mosses and lichens, sixteen species ; 9, " miscellaneous
plants," nine species, to which are added the names of one
hundred and fifty-three species that have not yet been
used. The second class — grain — includes four orders : 1,
hemp, wheat, and paddy, which comprise twelve species ;
2, maize, which includes eighteen species ; 3, leguminous
plants, having fourteen species ; 4, kinds of grain capable
of fermentation, or plants from which wines and other
liquors are extracted, comprising twenty-nine species.
The third class, " herbaceous plants," of five orders :
1, pungent and bitter, which have a strong taste or smell,
comprising thirty-two species ; 2, such as are of soft,
mucilaginous quality, comprising forty-one species ; 3,
plants producing fruit on the ground, comprising eleven
species ; 4, edible water plants, comprising six classes ;
5, fungi, such as agarick, mushroom, toad-stool, and
others, containing thirteen species. The fourth class —
fruits — comprehends six orders: 1, the five fruits — peach,

TUBES, 1KSBCTS, ANIMALS. 373

apricot, white bramble, and different sorts of the plum, of
which there are eleven species ; 2, mountain fruits, such
as are uncultivated, comprising thirty-four species; 3,
foreign fruits, comprising thirty-two species ; 4, aromatic
fruits, including thirteen species ; 5, fruits which grow on
the ground and have no kernels, of which there are nine
s|>ecies ; 6, water fruits, such as the water-lily, root and
seeds, including six species, to which twenty-three have
been added. The fifth class, " trees," comprehends six
orders: 1, odoriferous woods, of thirty-five species, such
as the pine, larch, cassia, rose, magnolia, myrrh, cloves,
sandal wood, cedar, camphor, benzoin, assafoetkla, aloes,
and others; 2, tall-stemmed trees, including fifty-two
species, as varnish-trees, sterculia, willow, tamarisk; 3,
luxuriant trees, which grow freely, such as the mulberry,
calycanthus, and others, of which there are fifty species ;
4, parasitic plants, of which there are eleven species ; 6,
flexible plants, such as the bamboo and tabasheer, of
which there are four species ; 6, miscellaneous trees, includ-
ing seven species, to which there are added supplement-
ary notices of twenty more. The sixth class, " articles
of clothing," comprising two orders: 1, silk, cloth, and
leather, which includes twenty-five species ; 2, " imple-
ments and materials," which embrace fifty-four species.
The seventh class, "insects," comprises four orders: 1,
superior oviparous, including twenty-two species ; 2, in-
ferior oviparous, twenty-one species ; 3, " transformed,"
thirty-one species ; 4, those produced from damp, twenty-
three species. The eighth class, " scaly animals," com-
prising four orders: 1, the dragon, of which there are
nine species ; 2, the serpent, of which there are seventeen
specie* ; 3, fish, of which there are twenty-eight species ;

374 FISHES AND QUADRUPEDS.

4, fishes without scales, of which there are thirty-one
species, with a supplementary addition of nine other
kinds. The ninth class — animals with shells — has two
orders : 1, the hill tortoise, having seventeen species ; 2, the
water tortoise, twenty-nine species, among which oysters,
crabs, and other kinds of shell fish are enumerated. The
tenth class — birds — comprises four orders ; belonging, 1, to
the water, which has thirteen species ; 2, to the plain, which
has twenty-two species; 3, to the forest, which has seven-
teen species; 4, to the mountain, which has thirteen
species. The eleventh class — quadrupeds— comprises
four orders: 1, domestic, including twenty-eight species;
2, wild* including thirty-eight species; 3, the mouse
tribe, including twelve species ; 4, the monkey tribe, and
extraordinary animals of that kind, altogether eight
species. The twelfth class — man — consists only of one
order and one species. These twelve classes added to
the four classes of metals, stones, minerals, and fossils,
noticed in the beginning of these remarks, make up the
sixteen classes.

The following different fruits are mentioned in the pre-
ceding index : the pear, quince, pomegranate, orange, pu-
melo, fingered citron, maspilus japonica, golden orange,
arbutus, silver almond, walnut, le che — a kind of plum,
dragon's eye, beetle nut, jack fruit, and fig. Among the
fruits designated " aromatic," are various sorts of pepper,
melons, vines, water-melons, and sugar-cane* Among the
insects, the silkworm and the stone silkworm are the only
two species noticed. Of the domestic animals, the hog,
dog, sheep, goat, cow, buffalo, horse, ass, and camel, are
the principal. There is another work called " The Horse
Classic/ ' which seems to have been written exclusively for

TRKAT1SB ON HORSBS. 375

veterinary purposes, or rather to explain the diseases pecu-
liar to horses, since one hundred and twelve drawings are
given, to represent the diseases to which horses are liable,
with the best mode of curing them. These being arranged
according to the four seasons, numerous diseases, as they
are most likely to happen in spring, summer, autumn, or
winter, are minutely detailed under each of those heads,
with a materia nedica, and the proper mode of training
and feeding horses. Although there is nothing interesting
in a scientific view, in the details, still they show the
care with which this noble animal has been treated by the
Chinese, and their anxiety to preserve it from the influence
of damps, and from a broken wind, and to cure its local
disorders.

Among the wild animals are specified the rhinoceros
with one horn (probably the unicorn of the Scriptures),
and another species having two horns; also the lion,
leopard, tiger, elephant, wild horse, wild boar, stag, goat,
bear, the musk animal (moschiferus), the enchanted or
intellectual cat, the fox, the hare, the wolf, and the otter.
The class of monkeys contains six species of different
names, which, however, do not convey any thing particular
except the ring -ting, which the Malays call orang-utan—
" the man of the forest" — and thefei-fei, which is said to
resemble a man ; and as these animals are represented by
the Chinese in an erect position, on their hinder feet, and
are placed the next to man in the series of animals
described in the work from which I am quoting, it is
probable the ancients considered the ring and the fei as a
sort of connecting link between the brute and the human
species.

in u work on agriculture and weaving, directions are

376 THE SILKWORM.

given on the latter topic for the proper treatment of the
silkworm. It is divided into twenty-three parts, each
containing short notices of the method to be employed
from the first rearing of the silkworm to the production
of the raw material, and its final adaptation for clothing.
It begins with the bathing of the cocoon, and describes the
process of keeping the silkworm in a proper temperature,
supplying it with suitable leaves, and making all neces-
sary preparations for weaving; but as this work only
incidentally mentions the silkworm as subservient to the
manufacture of silken garments from the produce of its
labours, it contains no accounts of its habits that would
interest the naturalist.

It is singular that one of the topics suggested as essen-
tial to success, is the act of sacrificing and returning
thanks to the god of the silkworms.

Too frequently merely irregular details of the usages
in practice, without any attempt to classify the species
on philosophical principles, is the only guide the Chinese
student is favoured with in such cases ; and as it is not
compatible with the objects of this work to enter into the
minutiae of the treatment of the silkworm, neither is it
necessary to do more than state general theories, since I
can refer my readers who may wish for more ample details
on the care of the silkworm, to the valuable information
communicated by J. F. Davies, Esq., on this subject, in his
interesting work on China.

The sexual system of the universe, to which we have
had such frequent occasion to refer, from its appropria-
tion to plants, gives the botanical system of the Chinese
an appearance of greater conformity to the modern theories
of western philosophers than it really possesses. Hence

PEMALE PLANTS. 377

many names of plants with the word " female " prefixed to
them, might lead a a European botanist immediately to con-
clude that these were all arranged on scientific princi-
ples, agreeably to the demonstrative evidence on which bis
own theories have been based ; whereas such names as the
female epidendrum, the female fermenting plant, the female
coriander (" that is the white coriander," says the author),
the female stem, female flower, and several other similar
appellations, have been arbitrarily imposed, either to sus-
tain the sexual theory of the material fabric of the universe,
or from some fancied resemblance in the plant to some
property of the female species in animated creatures.
Still the sexual theory applied to plants, and other inani-
mate productions, though its principles are erroneous,
will doubtless be of distinguished service to the cause of
natural history, whenever the scientific systems of Europe
shall obtain an audience of the sons of the celestial
territory, whose language, thus prepared, will more readily
convey the superior conceptions and arrangements of the
west, on this and other scientific or philosophical subjects.
That some attention has been paid to natural history, and
a foundation thereby laid for the ampler discussion of the
subject, is evident from the works already published, and
the labour bestowed in preparing, according to existing
notions, permanent records for the amusement and in-
struction of the people. One such work, in addition to
those already noticed, is designated " Extensive grouping
of Fragrant Genealogies :" it contains a nomenclature of
numerous plants in an original text elucidated by com-
mentaries from different authors of varied length.

The " tea plant/' and the " cotton tree/' are the only
species to which 1 can allude. The volume on tea begins

378 THE TEA TREE.

with a record of the several names which have been
appropriated to it, accompanied by the following descrip-
tion of the plant. "The tree is like the kwa-leu, the
name of a medicinal plant; its foliage like that of the
che-tsze, which bears a white fragrant flower; its flowers
are like the white rose (tseang-wei), but the yellow centre
has a pure concealed fragrance (perhaps not strongly
scented) ; its fruit is like the ping-leu ; its stems like the
ting-heang ; its trunk like that of the walnut or peach tree.
With regard to its height, some species are one cubit, a
foot and a half; some two cubits; some several tens of
cubits; the circumference of which would require two
men to embrace them." Much space is occupied in mi-
nutely describing the districts and places where the best
teas grow, and with a detail of the fanciful names by
which different sorts are distinguished, and the still more
fanciful analogies introduced for the sake of illustration ;
there are the dragon and phoenix teas; the sparrow-
tongued leaf; the soft and tender cricket-winged leaf;
the early spring yellow germs and leaves which mutually
embrace like the petals of flowers and buds; and an
endless variety of nominal characteristics, without any
thing approaching to a scientific classification to relieve
the uninteresting detail.

In the same work the names of several species of the
" cotton tree" are given. " The muh-meen," or cloth-tree ;
the ancient, or felicitous, pearl ; the koo-chung, or grass-
cloth, which designates a different species from that of
the tree : the Indian books call it tan-po, and kea-lo-po.
The muh-meen is of two kinds, the one belonging to the
order of herbs, the other to that of trees, which are equally
extended in their structure. The branches of the tree

THE COTTON TREE. 379

arc like those of the Tung, or varnish tree ; its foliage like
that of the walnut tree, which at the beginning of autumn
open* its blushing flowers like the pistils of the wild ca-
mellia japonica; its petals being very thick, form the closest
calix ; their short sides mutually correspond. Its fruit is
the size of a man's fist, in the middle of which there is the
white cotton, also containing within itself the seed. That
s|>ecies which southern historians call the production
of the Lin-pa country, is the " ancient pearl," the centre
of whose flower is like a goose's feather ; and that which
the records of the state Woo call the " eternally splendid
cotton tree," which grows above the house-tops, is a tree
resembling the cotton tree, but not of the same genus.
There is another species of " cotton tree" planted north
of the river Hwae, with a slender stem, like that of herba-
ceous plants or creepers, from four to five cubits high,
whose leaves are spiral with three points, like the acer
maple, or sycamore tree ; it bears flowers in the beginning
of uutumn like the sunflower, and small ones of reddish
nankeen colour ; its fruit is like the peach, in the centre
of which is white cotton containing seed, which resembles
that of the dryandra-cordifolia ; it also yields nankeen
cotton ; it is plucked in the eighth month, and called the
" cotton flower." The species denominated by southern
writers " high and splendid," has grass fruit like the
cacoon of the silkworm, which yields a fine hemp, the
cloth of which is called the white Ue j£J5 . The province
of Kwei-chow yields the creeping cotton plants, which
give fruit like the downy feathers of a goose ; this is the
cotton of the grass plant. This species was first culti-
vated at the close of the southern Sung dynasty , # having

• A.D. 12S1.

380 CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES.

been originally introduced in the southern districts, but
is now also prevalent both in the northern and middle
districts.

In concluding the subjects of this volume, and as a
necessary supplement to the efforts of native authors, it
will not be out of place to give a specimen of foreign
attempts to introduce European literature to the notice
of the Chinese through the medium of their own tongue.
It is well known that China was first indebted to the zeal
and ability of the Romish Missionaries for correct princi-
ples on theological and moral science, which were recom-
mended to them by instructions in mathematics, geometry,
astronomy, and some of the practical arts of life. It is
not my intention to notice the French, Latin, or English
works which have been published by the different orders
of the Romish clergy, by gentlemen connected with the
Protestant churches, and mercantile establishments of my
own country, but in conformity with the plan I have
heretofore adopted, to quote from works written in the
Chinese language, or confined to the elucidation of it.
Those who desire to see an enumeration of the authors
who have published works on China, arranged in chrono-
logical order, will be gratified by consulting the late Dr.
Morrison's Chinese Miscellany,* in which judicious re-
marks are interspersed either on the character of the
writers or their subjects. But as the learned and able
work of Premare, in Latin, under the title " Notitia Lin-
guae Sinicae," was not published when Dr. Morrison
wrote these notices, it seems to claim some attention here.
It is designed to aid the student of Chinese in his acquisi-

* Page 44, etc.: — " Notices of European intercourse with China, and of
hooks concerning it, arranged in chronological order."

LITERARY LABOUR*. 381

tion of that tongue. And as some remarks on the study
of the language and literature may be expected to con-
clude this volume, I will introduce those which Premare
has made in the work now under review, as well as for a
specimen of the ability with which some Catholic Mis-
sionaries pursued their indefatigable labours. To every
one who has commenced the arduous task of studying
Chinese, it will soon be evident, that if he desires early
proficiency he must not encumber his incipient labours
with attention to the niceties of style ; but that to ac-
quire a correct medium of communication, acquaint him-
self with the revered sentiments of Chinese sages, and
obtain a respectable position among the natives, there are
certain authors which he must diligently study, until he
has imbibed their spirit and appropriated their best ex-
pressions. Such an attainment will be more readily made
by imitating their composition in practice, than by seeking
to reduce it to grammatical principles. The author of the
Notitia seems to have proceeded on this conviction, both
from the general plan of the work, and his exposition of
his own method of acquiring the language. " The plan,"
he says, " which, I confess, yielded me much benefit, is this.
When I commenced the study of Chinese authors, I had
the text of Mang-Tsze, Lun-Yu, Ta-Hed, and Chung-
Yung, carefully transcribed on paper suited to a Euro-
pean pen, not such as the Chinese pencil requires. The
characters with lines sufficiently apart were written on
each alternate page. Afterwards I got the ' Four Books*
bound up in one volume, and with such preparation pro-
ceeded diligently to examine the text and consult com-
mentators. On the alternate blank page I wrote my
notes, which were composed of the following materials :

382 CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES.

first, I preserved all phrases that appeared important, that
I might apprehend the exact sense of the text and acquire
an elegant style ; secondly, I equally noted those things
which are deemed inferior by the commentators, to ascer-
tain how far the moderns are blinded on the subject of
criticism, and how miserably incongruous they- are among
themselves ; thirdly, when I perceived errors and difficul-
ties, I did not fail to record them for the purpose of dis-
cussion with the learned. The sounds and meaning of
certain characters, I placed at their side ; I -wish I had
also marked the tones and aspirates when it was easy to
acquire them. The advantages derivable in a short time
from this plan may be proved by any one who will make
the experiment. Several indices alphabetically arranged
should be placed at the end of each book, by means of
which whatever is required may be found without difficulty,
although it might otherwise be sought in vain with much
labour in so many small native volumes. I earnestly
recommend all who are ambitious to excel as Chinese
scholars, to prepare several blank volumes for the follow-
ing purposes : — to contain all the figurative expressions
which occur in reading, to record characters which are
contraries opposite to each other in two separate columns,
to inscribe the names of eminently distinguished an-
cients, and to supply references to celebrated places, trees,
flowers, rivers, animals, and stones ; these things are truly
gratifying to polite writers. But there is one point of still
greater moment, which I fear must be considered rather
as desirable than attainable with novitiates in missionary
labour. I would suggest to those who are yet young, and
whose retentive faculty is in its full vigour, what no one
hinted to me, the expediency of committing to memory

LITERARY LABOURS. 383

the whole of the ' Four Books/ as Chinese boys are ac-
customed to learn them ; for we must become boys again
if we hope to preach Jesus Christ with effect to these
nations ; and what labour would not such a hope render
delightful ? I will briefly touch upon the certain benefits
derivable from this practice to inflame the zeal of my
dearest brethren. First, when you shall have learned those
books memoriter not a word improperly pronounced will
escape your lips, because as a boy you will listen to your
Chinese teacher, and imbibe no other sounds but those
which proceed from him ; secondly, not only will sounds
be rightly remembered, but attention will also be secured
to the form and composition of the symbols ; thirdly, it
will be very profitable to write out from memory cha-
racters from the text which you have recently learned, and
at a future period compare them diligently with your
author, to see whether any error has crept in ; fourthly,
by this means, Chinese words become firmly fixed in the
mind ; and it is far preferable thus to understand only a
hundred characters, than to acquire a thousand according
to the methods usually adopted ; fifthly, if in the course of
three or four years you think of composing in Chinese,
you will then with great joy reap the sweetest and most
abundant fruits from this apparently bitter root ; for the
symbols will present themselves spontaneously to your
mind, and each without further trouble assume its proper
position in the sentence. Nevertheless it is almost impos-
sible to persuade Europeans to undertake what to them
(falsely indeed) appears to be useless labour. I ask, bow-
ever, two things to be granted to me as absolutely neces-
sary : first, that certain passages most pleasing to them in
the authors which they read shall be committed to me-

384 CATJIOLIC MISSIONARIES.

mory ; for if what is gathered in this way be not all fruit,
it should not be despised ; since it will soon appear how
much learned Chinese esteem a foreigner whom they heir
reciting quotations from their own books, and retaining
some things in memory and explaining others even better
than native teachers : secondly, that as soon as possible
the art of writing the character be acquired, if not with the
Chinese pencil, at least with a European pen."

Every candid reader of the Notitia Linguae Sinicae will
be convinced that the learned author has rendered essen-
tial service to Chinese literature, by his diligence in col-
lecting materials, both ample and rare, for the elucidation
of the language, and by the superior judgment with which
he has arranged them. The writer has no historical
knowledge of the author, further than, as it should seem
from an incidental remark in the body of the treatise, that
he was in China at the commencement of the last century;
for when adverting to the style of a passage in the Chung
Yung, with a view to caution the student against indis-
criminately imitating its profusion of ornament, he ob-
serves, "but I held a different opinion in the year 1709,
when it first occurred to me to attempt Chinese composi-
tion." A specimen is then given of the essay, which was
written in the style of the above work, and entitled " The
Dream of a beautiful Country related/' the model of which
appears to have been Cicero's Somnium Scipionis. It
is surprising such an able work as the Notitia should
have remained so long unpublished. It was preserved in
the archives of the University of Paris until Dr. Morrison
returned to England, to whom an Irish nobleman then
presented it in manuscript, together with a munificent
donation to the Anglo-Chinese College, for the purpose of

LITERARY LABOURS. 385

defraying the expenses of its publication. It was forth-
with despatched to Malacca and printed at the Mission
press from the funds thus supplied, under the superinten-
dence of the officers of the College.

The usual mode of Chinese printing is on wooden
blocks— one being required for each page, similar to ste-
reotyped plates — which will only suit works entirely in the
native language. There was a small fount of Chinese
moveable types at Malacca, the only kind of type com-
binable with European letters; but it did not contain
more than the most common symbols : and hence every
character comprehended in this work, which was not
already cut, required to be engraved by the tedious pro-
cess of manual labour. From the type so cut, whether
combined with the European letter or used alone, a cor-
rect impression was readily obtained by the ordinary mode
of printing; comparative inelegance in its appearance was
to be expected ; correctness is, however, secured. The
want of accented English letters to express the tones con-
stituted another difficulty, especially in the former part of
the work. Every effort was made, but not always with
success, to give effect to the admirable plan of the author,
who had marked the proper tone of each character, along
with its pronunciation, in Roman letters. But apart
from defects, which could scarcely be avoided under such
circumstances, the work will furnish valuable assistance
to the foreign student of Chinese, and thus amply reward
the noble donor's beneficent intentions in giving it to the
world. Its publication must in one respect be regarded
as the fruit of the Anglo-Chinese College, since it fur-
nished facilities for printing the native character, confess-
edly indeed imperfect, but which could not be procured

2c

ma

CATHOLIC MISSIONARIES.

\<\ ill!]!' ■ ■■ ■ ■

brts will ere

in Europe. Surely, amid all the changes and
ments that are continually occurring, some efforts v
long be made to cast a fount of Chinese types in England.
The Chinese themselves once had a fount of moveable
types cast from copper ore, which they designated con-
gregated pearls; but they melted them up again after a
time, partly, perhaps, from partiality to the old system of
block-cutting, as well as from their ignorance of the art
of type-founding. Still stereotype in wood is remarkably
well adapted to the Chinese language, when not combined
with any other, as some of their own elegantly -printed
works testify.

The Notitia should occupy a place in the library of
every Chinese scholar. The treatise is divided into two
parts; the former comprising observations on the collo-
quial medium, the latter on the beauties of written com-
position, exemplified by luminous quotations from the best
native authorities. In this portion of the work there w a
discourse in Chinese on the " Being of God," which dia-
plays elegance of style, and a mode of discussing proofc
of the Divine existence adapted to the habits of reasoning
and reflection among the Chinese literati. It was written
by a companion of Premare's, who had laboured tejN
years in the service of the Catholic Mission, and might
well pass for native composition, imbued with the Chris-
tian argument in favour of one God, Towards its close
the author laudably commends the sacred Scriptures i
the only depository of accurate knowledge respecting t
Supreme Jehovah.

Perhaps a few remarks on the Catholic Mission
China may without impropriety conclude this article,
present stale evidently ought not to be considered as i

THEOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 387

specimen of its entire history ; for, whatever inefficiency
has lately characterized its agents, the works of several
at an earlier period bear powerful testimony to their abi-
lity, zeal, and diligence ; who, as their Chinese writings
manifest, were neither devoid of evangelical knowledge,
nor sparing of pains to communicate it impressively to the
heathen. Errors of the Romish Church, without doubt,
occur in their treatises ; but on topics which did not in-
terfere with Romanism they express themselves like men
of good sense and solid piety, who duly appreciated the
most valuable portions of divine revelation. The follow-
ing paragraph, translated from the Chinese, forms part of
a Catholic manuscript. It exhibits a method of instruct-
ing pagans which cannot fail to gratify every lover of
truth. Competent native scholars consider the style as
very superior ; and it is on this account I introduce it, as
well as to furnish a specimen of religious instruction from
the pen of a Romish Missionary. This is the extract :—
" When I state that a personage of most honourable
and illustrious condition became incarnate, suffered inhu-
man punishment and the horrors of crucifixion, perhaps
some will inquire on what grounds men can be called
upon to submit to Him as the Ruler of the Universe ? I
reply, humiliation and punishment are undergone either
deservedly or as an unjust infliction. If deservedly, there
is no great merit in the subject of them suffering without
complaint ; but undeserved suffering, endured both cheer-
fully and voluntarily for the benefit of others, is esteemed
in the highest {>ossible degree meritorious. According to
the sentiments of mankind and the maxims of the world,
every thing must be regulated by rank ; therefore, if the
circumstance* of the person degraded be originally mean,

2 c2

388

CATHOLIC MIS

adation be
ng tnatt 'ii
I with
■ cor-

ecto-
iition
■aired

sins
tand-

sor-

and his habits of life low, although the degradation
complete, it is wholly unattended with redeeming
glory. But deep humiliation, where it is connected with
original dignity, will be accompanied with honour cor-
responding in degree to the depths of its voluntary al

nuoit,

" A drought continued seven years under the Shi
dynasty, during which the emperor, on behalf of the
pie, interceded with heaven for rain. To do this effe
ally he covered his body with rushes, assumed the position
of a bullock devoted to sacrifice, cut ofF his hair, paired
his nails, inflicted punishment on his own body for
and debased himself to the uttermost. But notwithsi
ing this degradation, the glory with which he was
rounded rendered it imperceptible to his ministers and
people; because he sought to remove a direful calamity
under which the whole nation had long groaned. Ttic
deeper, therefore, his personal humiliation became, the
more resplendent was the honour to which it exalted iiiui.
An ordinary individual could not have displayed the bum
eminence of character, even though his abasement were
yet more profound ; for, if he deserved to suffer, his degra-
dation would only render him a fitter object of reproba-
tion and contempt ; and, as humiliation derives its charac-
ter from the deserts of the subject of it, its merit must
regulated by his dignity and worth.

"Now, Sir, you do not ask whether Jesus, the Bqa
God, is in glory or in ignominy ? This question is clearly
understood; but you allege it is impossible to believe ou
him and submit to him. If 1 had said Jesus's deep dis-
grace shadows forth his exalted honour, his rahu
abasement displays his supreme dignity, his unparal],

:

deep .in-
voluntary

paralleled

THEOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 389

ignominy proclaims his infinite glory, I might not have
produced conviction; therefore, to illustrate the subject
more fully, I borrowed an allusion from historical recol-
lections of Tang, which is, after all, like taking a particle
of dust to represent the western mountains, or a drop of
water to symbolize the eastern ocean. Still, small and
great things compared together in a few particulars may
tend to corroborate the evidences of truth. Tang was the
prince of a country ; Jesus Christ is the Lord of the uni-
verse. To estimate Tang's merit by his virtue, he only
delivered one nation from famine at a peculiar aera ; Jesus
is able, by his virtue and his merit, to rescue the inha-
bitants of ten thousand provinces, or even ten thousand
worlds, from everlasting misery. Tang only charged upon
himself the six calamities incident to the body ; but Jesus
congregated in his own person the curses due to the sins
of all mankind. Tang's sacrifices only aimed to prolong
the mortal existence of the people for a short period;
Jesus endured concentrated agonies from the scourge, the
nails, the spear, and the cross on which he expired, to
procure for guilty multitudes the blessings of eternal life.
It is needless to point out which is the superior of these
two characters ; and if the inferior, without previous de-
gradation, be honourably distinguished, then must the
superior rise from his voluntary humiliation to infinitely
higher honour and glory. This is already manifest ; fur-
ther discussion is unnecessary."

I will not detain the reader by commending the beau-
ties of this excellent passage in detail. Truth, so impor-
tant, elegantly expressed, as it is in Chinese, and admira-
bly adapted to its final object, whoever is the medium of

390 CATHOLIC MISSIONS.

communication, cannot but be productive of momentous
consequences.

Among other works from the same school, of varied
excellence, it is but just to state, that an epitome of the
four Gospels which had been printed in China, although
it embodied a faithful narrative of the most important
points in our Saviour's life, was introduced by a tradi-
tionary legend of the church, but little in accordance with
the dignified simplicity of the truths to which it is pre-
fixed. There was also a short dissertation on the Trinity,
the doctrine of which, as it respected the personality of
the Father and of the Son, was scripturally sustained ;
but it was not so with regard to the Sacred Spirit. His
existence, as well as his operations, was represented by a
word signifying " love" or " desire," and, consequently,
personal attributes and perfections were merged in mere
abstract influence. The style of composition is very
superior. Several members of the Romish mission, in its
earlier history, were learned and able men, skilled in the
abstract sciences, and acquainted with their practical
application to the arts of life, to whom the Chinese were
indebted for much accurate knowledge of geonu-rn.
astronomy, and geography, and for treatises on mathema-
tical science in general, some of which, distinguished for
luminous thought and precision of language, I have
perused with great satisfaction. It was by these men,
also, that Europe was first correctly informed on the
nature of the language, government, religion, ethics, and
customs of China ; and from them, for a long period,
i ■iiiaiiaied whatever was known by Europeans of that dis-
tant people. Their successors, who seem to have degenc-

PRESENT STATE IN CHINA. 391

rated in point of ability, have now lost their influence at
court. Dr. Morrison says,* " he knew personally ten
Catholic Missionaries in China — Italians, French, and
Portuguese — who had resided at court, or on the frontier,
from fourteen to thirty years, and only three of them
could read Chinese ; four of them had been many years
in Peking and did not know a single symbol, but could
speak the language, while some of the others could
neither read nor speak it;" and, referring to their treat-
ment at court, he adds further: " Subsequently to the
reign of Kang-he, they have never or but rarely been
admitted to an audience of the emperors ; of late, placed
under military guard at Peking, as the Russians also are,
they have been more like prisoners than friends." Since
the above was written, the whole of the Catholic Mis-
sionaries have been compelled to leave the capital. Their
secular services can now be dispensed with. As they
succeeded the Mohammedans, who were displaced to
admit them, so they were retained at court only until
natives acquired from them sufficient mathematical and
astronomical knowledge to enable them to perform the
duties formerly discharged by their instructors, whom
they now supersede in the service of government.

iSo opportunities, similar to those enjoyed by the Catho-
lics, have been afforded before or since to Europeans
for the introduction of the sciences or Christian literature
into Chiua. Some of their number were in the confidence
of the emperor of the last Chinese dynasty, as well as the
most distinguished emperors of the present Tartar race ;
and, consequently, hud access to the best aids for acquir-
ing a knowledge of the Chinese language, as a medium of

• *** CUncw Mbcdknj. p«|e 51.

communicating western science. Hence the accuracy
and elegance of their chief works, some of which contain
mathematical diagrams, plates of astronomical and mathe-
matical instruments, along with dissertations on hind sur-
veying, astronomy, dialling, logarithms, calculations, theo-
ries on music, with other practical treatises on subjects
at that time in high repute. The influence they acquired
by these means was for a time exceedingly great.

Why Divine Providence has permitted the destructive
errors of Popery to overrun the most populous portions of
the globe, previous to a full manifestation of the GospeJ,
is an inquiry not within reach of satisfactory solution.
Nor is it important, except as it stimulates disciples of a
purer creed to ask, whether their orthodoxy has yielded
sacrifices to God equal in value with those which have
been offered by the spirit of error at the shrine of eccle-
siastical domination and worldly ambition. For if, in
order to propagate tenets as devoid of spiritual consolation
as their practical influence is baneful, men brave the
terrors of persecution, and meet death in its most horrid
forms without dismay, what degree of labour and sorrow
is too painful for the servant of Christ to endure in dif-
fusing the peaceful reign of Heaven, supported by the
" strong consolation" of the Gospel 'i Sound learning and
piety doubtless distinguished some who devoted their lives
to the extension of Popery in China, though beclouded
by the mists of educational error; but these were not many
in proportion to the number sent forth, and therefore
their acquirements and talents formed an exception to the
general standard. If, however, a church which holds tin-
truth in unrighteousness occasionally teaches wholesome
doctrine, and furnishes workmen that need not to be

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 393

ashamed, what should be the fruits of a system avowedly
formed on a divine model, and disciplined according to
the received dictates of Holy Scripture ? If truth, marred
by human inventions, sometimes produces noble results,
how majestic must be its influence, when, unfettered with
superstitious prejudices, untainted with selfish motives, it
emanates in original purity from its heavenly source, free
as that influence which was breathed on the Apostles by
the Holy Ghost? If God has in any wise rendered in-
strumental to the diffusion of the truth an institution so
opposed in numerous particulars to His own statutes, is
there not reason to hope that He will crown every method
of human agency with success, in proportion to its agree-
ment with Holy Scripture, and its opposition to every
method save that which He himself has appointed?
While diligence, ardour, self-denial, learning, and perfect
devotion to their object, stand forth in some Romish
Missionaries as characteristics worthy of generous emula-
tion, grievous errors in doctrine, idolatrous superstitions,
worldly-miudedness, political ambition, strife, and desire
of personal pre-eminence, in many others, serve as beacons
to point out the rocks on which Romanism finally suffered
shipwreck.

The ascendancy which these missions had once ac-
quired in India and China was gained by pandering to
human passions and lusts, and by directing the course of
truth through the impure channels of idolatry and super-
stition. Power was sought by means of worldly connec-
tions and secular pursuits, not in subordination to religion,
but as leading objects under the sanction of its venerable
name. Their fate should, therefore, operate as a warning

394 PHOTESTANT LABOPRS IN CHINA,

to abettors of state policy, who use a form of divine
worship as a pretext for selfish and ambitious views. For
whatever moral excellence, and natural or acquired
ability, belong to individuals, it will not avail to secure
permanent success to the system ; nor can any establish-
ment be preserved from corruption and ultimate ruin,
which, while it professes to extend the kingdom of God,
repudiates the principles of eternal truth for the sake of
worldly maxims, and trusts to secular power for its
aggrandisement and prosperity.

Although it is not my object minutely to state what
Protestants have accomplished in China, either to diffuse
their religious principles, or to promote the cause of
general literature, still, having noticed the labours of the
Romish church on both points, it is but just to give a
summary view of what has been effected by the united
benevolence of the British people. The official publica-
tions of the London Missionary Society, and other work?
on the Chinese mission, furnish details which it is not
necessary to repeat. The truth is, the hostility of the
Chinese government to the settlement of foreigners within
its territories has so circumscribed Christian exertions as
to leave little to narrate of historical interest. Wocfa
that should facilitate the future cultivation of Chinese
philology by Europeans, and secure a standard of appeal
ou theology for Chinese in their own language, were the
first great objects at which the founders of the Chinese
mission aimed. These have been so far attained, that a
comprehensive dictionary, a grammar, and other minor
works on language, have been published to aid the
studies of Europeans; and a valuable translation of the

PHILANTHROPIC AND LITERARY. 395

Scriptures,* together with numerous excellent and useful
tracts, chiefly on theology, have been prepared for the
Chinese, and printed at the united expense of the Mis-
sionary, Bible, and Tract Societies. The use of the press,
an essential preliminary step to direct moral and literary
influence, has hitherto been the only practicable means of
intercourse with China. The location of Chinese missions
in colonies upwards of a thousand miles distant, could
not be expected to make any perceptible impression on
the mother country, though, without doubt, some good
has thereby been indirectly accomplished. So far as it
regards Chinese printing, education, free intercourse with
the colonists, and the unfettered publication of books in
the Chinese language, the end of such establishments has
been to some extent answered. Great difficulties, how-
ever, have arisen from the inability of the European con-
stitution long to sustain unremitting mental application
in such a climate, and from the very small proportion
of persons sent out who, either from sickness or other
causes, have succeeded in acquiring a thorough command
of the language.

Literary works by gentlemen connected with the British
factory have also appeared ; these, we believe, have been
principally confined to the English language, consisting
either of translations from native authors, or general
descriptions of the habits, sentiments, and customs of the
people, from the opportunities afforded by personal ob-
servation and intercourse ; all which are valuable in the

* For the author's opinion of Morrison's Chinese Dictionary , and Morrison's
and Milne's Translation of the Sacred Scriptures, see his •• Critical Notices
of Dr. Morrison's Literary Labours," subjoined to Mrs. Morrison's \
of the Doctor's life.

396 PROTESTANT LABOURS IK CHINA,

circle to which they belong, and have contributed tit
remove the ignorance and prejudice which had so long
covered Europe on purely Chinese matters. Since the
Catholic missions have lost favour at court, small Latin
publications on Chinese subjects have occasionally issued
from the Catholic college at Macao, which has student?
preparing for the priesthood in China under the patronage
of the Portuguese government. It is only just, though a
fact well known, to notice the munificent pecuniary aid
afforded to the cause of Chinese literature by the Honour-
able East India Company, who printed at their entire ex-
pense Dr. Morrison's dictionary ; and the readiness with
which members of the British factory in China, and
officers civil and military in the service of the Company,
have at various times rendered very liberal contributions
to promote the education of Chinese youth in the Straits of
Malacca. Gentlemen of the medical profession connected
with the British factory in China, with whom Dr. Morri-
son co-operated in the establishment of an hospital for
sick natives, cheerfully employed their time and talents in
the mitigation of disease, and the general improvement of
medical science. The desirableness of institutions to
improve the moral and physical condition of pagans,
based on principles purely scriptural, must strike evt-ry
eye-witness of the deplorable sufferings arising from the
combined influence of vice, disease, and ignorance. And
as education most naturally unites itself with the proper
duties of the Christian minister, so it is this sphere chiefly
in which the Missionary has exercised his talents abroad.
But as it was the custom of our Lord and his apostles to
effect miraculous cures of otherwise incurable diseases,
both of mind and body, as n general testimony to tho

PHILANTHROPIC AHD LITERARY. 397

supremely benevolent character of the Christian system,
so, in the absence of supernatural gifts, most favourable
impressions will, no doubt, be made on the minds of the
Chinese, by means of medical treatment in combination
with moral and religious instruction. With this view the
gratuitous aid formerly afforded by the Honourable East
India Company's medical officers, has lead to more ex-
tended efforts in this department of Christian benevolence,
by British and American Christians. The former, before the
present hostilities commenced, had two efficient surgeons
in China, one of them, a graduate in the London Univer-
sity, stationed with the hospital at Macao, the other
located at Canton, both under the patronage of the Lon-
don Missionary Society. The Americans, who were the
first to act on the principle of sending medical Mission-
aries, had physicians and surgeons in China before the
present interruption to foreign commerce occurred. While
Missionaries have done what they could in the art of
healing in connection with their own proper duties, and
medical gentlemen, sent out by Christian societies, are
expected to use the influence acquired by their profession
in favour of Christianity ; still theology, literature, science,
and the healing art, especially in China, must be attended
to separately, if eminent success in any one department
is sought.

The issue of the present contest, whether protracted in
its operations or brought to a speedy conclusion, cannot
be doubtful. Great Britain will not withdraw her hostile
forces without entire satisfaction ; nor will the Chinese,
whose resources lie in evasion and falsehood, on which
they act, apparently unconscious of shame, ever make
concessions, or observe any treaty to which they may

398 REFLECTIONS OK THE

promise to become parties, unless from awe, iiispir.-.l bg
the presence of a powerful force. No one would be more
sorry than the author, even to appear to be the advocate
of the dreadful calamity of war. His object in the pre-
sent statement is to express his opinions of the progress
and result of the present conflict. It would have been
considered harsh not to have believed the emperor, who
declared by a special ambassador to the British autho-
rities, that he had been deceived, but now that he was
correctly informed on the whole case, their grievances
should be redressed if they returned to Canton ; and iu
proof of his sincerity, not only superseded the respon-
sible officer, but placed his life at the disposal of the
British, and appointed another commissioner, with full
powers to negotiate ; yet who, with any experience of the
Chinese character, but must have known that it was a
scheme of pure deception, advanced only for the pupMS
of ridding the north of the presence of the barbarians,
and of lulling them into inactivity until further offensive
measures were prepared ? But since the emperor has
forcibly demonstrated by his actions, and illustrated by
his own pen, the perfidious nature of his promises, and,
consequently, the futility of all treaties, whose fulfilment
is not secured by actual deposits, or the presence of an
adequate military establishment, it cannot be urged tint
the British have assumed the faithlessness of the Chinese,
without ample evidence to convict them of it.

It was no doubt a very difficult position in which the
immediate successor to the administrator of the East India
Company's affairs was placed, when called upon tudis-
charge the duties of negotiator between the Chime no]
British, not merely tram the influx of ttnngen, nnaccus-

WAR WITH CHINA. 399

tomed to the manners of the natives, but especially from
the difference between the office of president of a mer-
cantile establishment, and that of the representative of
the sovereign of Great Britain. The peculiar views enter-
tained by the Chinese of the inferiority of mercantile
employment as the lowest of four grades into which they
divide the community ; — regarding the cultivation of the
mind as the first or most honourable, agriculture as the
second, mechanical labour as the third, and trade or
commerce as the fourth or lowest grade — in connection
with their haughty bearing towards all foreigners, with
whom they disdain to treat on equal terms, would make
it most difficult for a British envoy to satisfy what the
Chinese would call reasonable demands, without com-
promising the dignity of his own station. Rank might
be opposed to rank, and credentials presented of equal
authority to those of the imperial commissioner; but,
unless by permitting his country to be placed on the
same footing with the petty states of the East, there could
be no regular transactions, and, consequently, no recog-
nition of British rank and influence.

Without inquiring into the origin of the present war,
all our anxieties should be directed to its results ; on the
nature of which, under Divine Providence, future Christian
and literary efforts depend for their sphere of operation.
It is difficult to conceive how the conflict can be ter-
minated to the satisfaction of the British nation, except
by procuring a settlement, either on the confines, or within
the limits of the Chinese territory ; where such persons as
aim to promote peace and good-will among the Chinese
by moral means, will be allowed permanently to reside,
and to carry cm their measures without interruption. And

400 CULTIVATION OF CHINESE

if this be the effect of the present misunderstanding be-
tween the two empires, though it would have been thought
most extravagant even to anticipate it a few years ago,
still it will only be in accordance with the previous opera-
tions of Divine Providence, who by similar instrumental iu
transferred the territory of the East Indies, then under
the dominion of native princes, to the sovereignty of Great
Britain; not, as the immediate actors in those scenes
supposed, for the sole purpose of extending British do-
minion, creating sources of official rank, and augmenting
individual wealth and influence, but with the gracious
design of eventually making these acquisitions subserve
the diffusion of the imperishable principles of truth and
holiness.

This benevolent object has been for some time gra-
dually developing itself during a series of events that have
occurred in the Indian empire; and, therefore, in
the hope that, from the present unhappy circumstan.t M ll
China, the same omnipotent Power is about to educe the
highest possible good, by elevating the Chinese character
to an eminence hitherto unattained, and giving to it a
stabdity and grandeur which the great principles of reve-
lation alone can impart.

As it has been my design in this volume to select pro-
minent characteristics of the Chinese mind and manners,
and elucidate them by various references to native works,
so, as some important practical result should be aimed at,
it is natural to inquire what can be done to extend the
cultivation of Chinese literature in England? It is known
that an opportunity is afforded at University OoQegttj
London, with which the author has the honour of being
connected, for studying the literature and language of

LITERATURE IN ENGLAND. 401

China; and that on the continent of Europe, at the
French and German universities, this branch of oriental
learning has been cultivated much longer and under more
favourable auspices than in England ; since facilities for
disposing of translations and original essays through the
medium of the press, and for securing literary patronage,
have always been far superior on the continent, where
there has been but little direct communication with China,
than in England, which has for centuries had more ex-
tensive intercourse with the Chinese than any other
nation. Without minute specification of the causes that
have obstructed the free culture of the oriental languages
in England, the chief one is the absorbing influence of
commercial enterprize ; and still it is surprising that while
the East India Company have long directly promoted the
study of Indian languages in England, they should not
have pursued a similar course with respect to the Chinese
during their administration of the affairs of British com-
merce in China. The sphere of influence there, compared
with that of India, it is true, was extremely limited; but
as gentlemen who studied Chinese for their own pleasure,
after their arrival in the country, found such acquisitions
attended with great advantage in their official character, it
may be fairly inferred, that the public service would have
been promoted by a similar institution, though on a
smaller scale, to that of Hailevburv College. But as the
trade of China has been transferred to the British people,
under the immediate direction of the government, they
have now a positive interest in promoting mutual esteem,
and laying the basis of amicable intercourse ln»tween
the two countries, by encouraging the cultivation of their
language, and thus giving an opportunity to those who

2 d

are to be the future representatives of the British nation
in China, not only to acquaint themselves with its general
laws and customs, but to acquire the ability of communi-
cating with its subjects in their own tongue. There can
be no doubt that this object would be greatly promoted if
the government were to make it a condition, on the appoint-
ment of their servants to China, that they should acquire
the language to an extent sufficient to render future pro-
gress both easy and attractive, and to encourage, by it*
patronage, the general cultivation of Chinese literature; as
the entire trade is now thrown open to the public, the small
pecuniary aid required would be amply repaid by the bene-
fits derivable to themselves from the freer coram unicat ion
such measures would be likely to establish between China
and England. Still, I confess, I would much rather that
the liberality, the learning, and the benevolent aid, of
the British people, were called forth for the avowed pur-
pose of encouraging the study of an important branch "I
general philology, and of oriental philosophy, than for
the mere object of subserving the growth of political
power and commercial influence. It is difficult for indi-
viduals, who before success can crown their efforts have to
create a taste for an unpopular subject, to be sustained
from private resources with sufficient energy in the prose-
cution of their incipient labours, until they have achieved
the desired success. But if once the aid of the British
government were afforded, there is much to animate Uic
student of the languages of the further East, which extend
over an immense field but little cultivated; and, accord-
ing to the indications of Divine Providence, are soon to
be still more widely opened to European rrmwrilwt
In this sphere, also, the object to l>c aimed at by the

LITERATURE IN ENGLAND. 403

scholar should be two-fold: that of acquiring oriental
knowledge, in order effectually to communicate in the
native languages the superior systems of the west; all
which, to he eminently successful in a moral point of
view, must be founded on the grand principles of Divine
Revelation.

TUB END.

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